Zhang Liwen

( Institute of Confucianism Studies, Remin University of China , Beijing 100872, China )

Translated from Chinese by Zhang Wenzhi

(Center for Zhouyi & Ancient Chinese Philosophy, Shandong University , Jinan 250100, China )

 2007-05-13

 

As one of the Confucian Classics, the Zhouyi is composed of the Yi jing , the Text, and Yi Zhuan , the Commentaries (also called Shi yi , the Ten Wings). It contains three components, namely, the divinatory documents, the image-number symbols, and the connotative interpretations. The Zhouyi is a literature relic which witnessed Chinese history from sorcery to civilization, a logic miniature of Chinese culture from superstition to science, a symbol of Chinese philosophy from mythology to the harmony theory of Tai ji (literally, Grand Ultimate), and a proceeding of Chinese thinking mode from image to rationalism.

 

SOLVING POLITICAL DOUBTS

 

Being the root of Chinese culture and the origin and source of Chinese ideology and national spirit, the Zhouyi revealed in depth the economic, political, and cultural structure, as well as life style, ethics, costumes, psychological structure of ancient China, exerting far-reaching influence upon the thousands-of-years long Chinese culture and even the world culture, having initiated Confucianism, Daoism, thought of the Mo School in the pre-Qin period, namely, nerving oneself into ceaseless activity in the society in Confucianism, docility and recluse's thought in Daoism, universal love and anti-war spirit upheld by the Mo School, the five-virtue circulation in the Yin - yang School, the debating on the attributes of hardness and whiteness of a stone in the School of Logicians, the law upheld by the Legalist School, strategies in the art of war, and so on.

    Ban Gu (32-92) described in Han shu Yi wen zhi (Bibliography in the History of the Western Han dynasty): “Having experienced three antiquities and having been perfected by the three sages, the Dao (Way) of the Yi is profound. Till the time when the books were burnt in the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.), thanks to its divinatory attribute, the Yi (avoided the fire and) was still being passed down successively.” In the Xia (c. 2070-1600 B.C.), Shang (c. 1600-1046 B.C.), and Western Zhou (1046-771 B.C.) dynasties, divination was an important reference in the social and political decision-makings. In the Shang dynasty, divination by burning tortoise-shells was in vogue. Along with the rareness and dearness of tortoise shells, yarrow stalks gradually replaced them. Therefore, tortoise shells and yarrow stalks became a tool for the official sorcerers to communicate the heaven and earth and the spirits as well.

    The Zhouyi exerted great influence upon the social politics in the remote antiquity (or the Bronze Age), when the solutions of doubts and statecrafts were determined by the result of divination. The remarks affiliated to the hexagrams and lines in the Yi jing resulted from the compilation of the abundant records in divination by official sorcerers over a long period of time. The issues to be divined in ancient times were fairly broad, ranging from state affairs to everyday trivialities. According to Zhou li Chun guan (“Minister of Spring” [Minister of Rites] in the Rituals of the Zhou), issues to be predicted include launching of war, weather forecast, presenting gifts to others, decision making, success or failure, arrival, recovery, and so on. By the remarks affiliated to the hexagrams and lines of the Zhouyi of the received version, the issues to be predicted can be classified into 8 aspects: war, travel, offering sacrifices, hunting & fishing, taming, marriage, and diseases.

    Important issues such as the succession of the throne and the establishment of the princes' states in the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-256 B.C.) were all determined by divination through the Zhouyi . Because the yarrow stalks were easier than tortoise shells to be obtained, not only did the divination by yarrow stalks prevail in the core of political group within which every action was determined by divination but also in the grass roots.

    Under this circumstance, diviners, kings, monarchs, ministers, as well as commoners could reach consensus and form a social community through divination. Shang shu Hong fan (“Cardinal Principles” in the Classic of Documents), indicated: “The seventh item relates to problem-solving strategies. You should select and appoint men for divination and charge them with the performance of that duty.” It also advises: if you have great doubts, you should consult your mind, the ministers, the commoners, and diviners. If tortoise shell, yarrow stalks, ministers, commoners, and you reach unanimity, it is called “great consensus”; if tortoise shell, yarrow stalks, and you agree, whereas your ministers and commoners are in opposition, it will be auspicious; if ministers, tortoise shell, and stalks agree but the commoners and you are in opposition, it will be also auspicious; if the commoners, tortoise shell, and stalks agree to but the ministers and you oppose a scheme, it will be auspicious, too; if tortoise shell and you agree but the stalks, ministers, and commoners object, it will be auspicious to interior affairs and ominous to exterior affairs; if the tortoise shell and stalks object but the ministers, commoners, and you agree, it will be auspicious for motionlessness and ominous for action. Among the six cases in doubts-solving, divination by the tortoise shell and stalks, prior to the king's will, plays a decisive role. In this social and political circumstance, great doubts were not simply solved by the king but by the comprehensive doubts-solving organism from six aspects. If we consider divination “spirit's scheme”, the intention of the king, ministers, and commoners should be called “man's scheme”, the former belonging to the realm of heaven and the latter to that of man, i.e. a merge of man and spirit's scheme. When the spirit's scheme goes against man's scheme, it is advisable to keep motionless to wait for a favorable opportunity. This kind of comprehensive consideration in the social and political doubts-solving manifests the daylight of intellectual thinking in the ancient society.

    How to merge the man's and spirit's schemes and how to govern the state under the cultural atmosphere of that “the Grand Heaven has no relatives, He only assists those who own virtues”? The king and ministers' duty lay in the administration of public affairs and moderation of the people's benefits. For instance, Hexagram Lin (the 19 th hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi ) offered this sort of sources: “ (trigram Dui in the lower position and trigram Kun in the upper position) Lin (approach) indicates there will be great progress and success, while it will be advantageous to be firmly correct; in the eighth month there will be evil. The first line, undivided, shows its subject approaching to communicate (with the commoners symbolized by the upper trigram Kun ); through his firm correctness there will be good fortune. The second line, undivided, shows its subject approaching to communicate (with the commoners symbolized by the upper trigram Kun ); there will be good fortune and (advancing) will be in every way advantageous. The third line, divided, shows the subject approaching pleasantly (indeed), (but whose action) will be in no way advantageous; if he become anxious about it (however), there will be no error. The fourth line, dividedly, shows the subject approaching in sincerity and there will be no error. The fifth line shows the subject approaching with wisdom, such as befits the great ruler; there will be good fortune. The sixth line, divided, shows the subject approaching with honesty and generosity; there will be good fortune, and no error.” Dui symbolizing marsh are in the lower position and indicates willing submission with admiration (as the Tuan interpreted: “being pleased and compliant); Kun symbolizing the earth is in the upper position and indicates falling in with the people's will. The whole hexagram indicates the rulers yield to the commoners' will and thus the commoners become pleased, hence the success and advantageousness. The strategy for the statecraft includes: 1)“approaching by affectionate communication” by which the upper rulers and lower commoners are linked, the commoners' will could be delivered to the rulers and the rulers' orders be carried out by the commoners; 2) presenting sweet dew to the commoners, which purports benefiting the commoners, is called “approaching with sweet dew”; 3) fulfilling duty perfectly with sincerity is called “approaching with sincerity”: if the rulers govern the people sincerely, the commoners will be happy and pacified; 4) knowing how to judge and use people and accomplish duties appropriately is called “approaching with wisdom”; 5) working conscientiously and trustworthily is called “approaching with honesty and generosity”. The remarks affiliated to the lower two undividedly lines of “approaching to communicate (with the commoners)” exhibits the emphasis on the infection and mental communication between the ruler and his subordinates, between different groups, and between the colleagues. This kind of infection and communication could strengthen the cohesiveness and activate vitality, bringing vigor to the public administration organism of the society.

 

MOLDING OF CHINESE NATIONAL SPIRIT

 

Besides of the prop of economic and political system, cultural, esp. spiritual prop, which assures the mental calmness for a nation and bears the sources for its development and prosperity, is indispensable to a society. Each state or nation has its unique national spirit which is the foundation to the national cohesion and vitality. In regard to this aspect, the Zhouyi made great contributions to the molding of Chinese national brilliant culture and national spirit.

 

    1) Molding of the Enterprising Spirit and That of Tolerance & Generosity

 

    Each nation need a spirit, otherwise it is destined to decline. “Nerving oneself to ceaseless activity” (i.e. enterprising spirit), according to Da Xiang (Great Image) of Hexagram Qian (the 1 st hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi ), is a spirit indispensable to a superior man. This spirit requires men should always be mettlesome, even in the face of hardship. The Tuan (Judgment) for Hexagram Xu (the 5 th hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi ) extended: “(The figure) shows peril in front; but notwithstanding the firmness and strength (indicated by the inner trigram), its subject does not allow himself to be involved (in the dangerous defile): it is right he should not be straitened or reduced to extremity.” Hexagram Xu is made up of trigram qian ,which, according to Shuo gua zhuan (Treatise of Remarks on the Trigrams, one of the Ten Wings), symbolizes firmness, in the lower (inner) position, and trigram kan , which, according to Shuo gua zhuan , symbolizes defile, in the upper (outer) position. The whole hexagram symbolizes, according to the Tuan , that though there is dangerous defiles ahead, the subject can overcome the difficulties and forge ahead courageously in virtue of his firmness. The spirit of nerving oneself to ceaseless activity is theoretically based on the qualities of Qian interpreted by Wen yan (the Record of Wen Yan , one of the Ten Wings ): “How great is (what is emblemed by) Qian ! — firm, vigorous, undeflected, correct, and (in all these qualities) pure, unmixed, exquisite!” It inspires people to enhance their virtue with the heaven's qualities of “firmness, vigorousness, undeflection, and correctness”.

    The four qualities of the heaven should be internalized in man's virtue. Firmness and striving represent one's self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-supporting, reflect one's steadfast belief in and unremitting pursuit for his value and ideal. For instance, when Confucius fell into adversity at states Chen and Cai, he was still high principled to realize his ideal. Vigorousness reflects a spirit of fortitude, a pure and sincere realm as Confucius praised Yan Hui in The Analects of Confucius (Book Six): “Incomparable indeed was Hui! A handful of rice to eat, a gourdful of water to drink, living in a mean street — others would have found it unendurably depressing, but to Hui's cheerfulness it made no difference at all.” The correctness embodies a noble spirit as described in the Duke Wen of Teng [Part B] in Mencius : “He can not be led into dissipation by wealth and rank, nor deflected from his aim by poverty and obscurity, nor made to bend by power and force.”

    “Enlarging virtue to support (men and) things” was raised in the Great Image of hexagram Kun (the 2 nd hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi ). If we say the spirit of “nerving oneself to ceaseless activity” is inspired from the “vigorousness of the heaven's motion” symbolized by hexagram Qian , then, the spirit of “enlarging one's virtue to support (men and) things is derived from the quality of docility of hexagram Kun . Qian symbolizes the heaven and Kun the earth. As the Tuan of Kun accounted: “Complete is the ‘great and originating (capacity)' indicated by Kun ! All things owe to it their birth; — it receives obediently the influence of Heaven”, the earth symbolized by Kun bears and sustains all things, which forged the qualities of honesty, generosity, open-mindedness and modesty for Chinese nation. And as it says in Xi ci zhua ( The Great Treatise , one component of the Ten Wings ): “He toils with success, but does not boast of it; he achieves merit, but takes no virtue to himself from it; — this is the height of generous goodness”, munificence and modesty are considered virtue of goodness. Hexagram Qian (Modesty, the 15 th hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi ) revealed this idea: “ Qian 谦 indicates progress and success. The superior man, (being humble as it implies,) will have a (good) issue (to his undertakings). The first line, divided, shows us the superior man who adds humility to humility. (Even) the great stream may be crossed with this, and there will be good fortune. The second line, divided, shows us humility that has made itself recognized. With firm correctness there will be good fortune. The third line, undivided, shows the superior man of modesty and merit, he will maintain his success to the end, and have good fortune. The fourth line, divided, shows one, whose action would be in every way advantageous, stirring up (the more) his humility. The fifth line, divided, shows one who, without being rich, is able to employ his neighbors. He may advantageously use the force of arms. All his movements will be advantageous. The sixth line, divided, shows us humility that has made itself recognized. The subject of it will with advantage put his hosts in motion; but (he will only) punish his own towns and state.” In hexagram Qian , trigram Kun symbolizing the earth is placed in the upper position while trigram Gen symbolizing mountain is put in the lower position. The whole hexagram indicates the subject, when being in the upper position (or in power) manifests his amiability and simplicity (symbolized by trigram Kun ), accepts all things under heaven magnanimously, and carry and sustain every thing with a broad mind, whereas the subject, when being in the lower position, acts humbly and recluse in the grassroots as a hill (symbolized by trigram Gen ) hides in the earth, not letting its peak out of the earth. As the Tuan for this Qian 谦·彖 extended: “ Qian indicates progress and success. It is the Dao (Way) of heaven to send down its beneficial influences below, where they are brilliantly displayed. It is the Dao of earth, lying low, to send its influences upwards and (there) to act”, hexagram Qian 谦 conceives an organism balanced with Yin and Yang . Modesty is the mother of all sorts of goodness, there will be good fortune, advantage in every respect. No matter how exalted one's name is and how great one's merit is, he/she ought to be modest. High reputation tends to cause arrogance. And if one claims credit and puts on air, and looks down upon everyone else due to being admired, things will go in the opposite direction. Modesty can turn affluence into pleasure. It can be called an actualization of the enlargement of virtue if one is conversant but still modest, wealthy but still helps out the poor, influential but still readily accept good advice.

 

    2) Spirit of Creativity and Adaptation

    The Zhouyi is a book explicating change, as Si-ma Qian accounted that “the Yi is good at change”. It inspires people to explore how and why the nature, society, and life change, as well as the tendency of change. This pursuit fostered the spirit of creativity and adaptation for Chinese people.

    As Xi ci zhuan describes “The Yi is a book which should not be let slip from the mind. Its method (of teaching) is marked by the frequent changing (of its lines). They change and move without staying (in one place), flowing about into any one of the six places of the hexagram. They ascend and descend, ever inconstant. The strong and weak lines change places, so that an invariable and compendious rule cannot be derived from them; — it must vary as their changes indicate”, the alternation between Yin and Yang occurs constantly without any fixed regulation and thus man should not stick to dogmas but adapt himself to the varying circumstances. Here it is hinted that the changes result from the interaction and intercommunication between Yin and Yang , and the modes of change include transformation and adaptation as Xi ci zhuan describes that “transformation and shaping is what we call change; carrying this out and operating with it is what we call adapting to the principle”, and “when a series of changes has run all its course, another change ensues. When it obtains free course, it will continue long”. So far as change is concerned, when a thing develops to certain degree, change will occur. It calls to mind that one should adapt him/herself to the varying conditions, things will be subjected to declination and failure, and only adaptation can make the multiplying and perpetual development possible, which is well indicated by hexagram Tai wherein Yin and Yang interact and intercommunicate well. Generalization of the principle of change is the prerequisite for the constancy of development.

    To make a perpetual development possible, the fundaments and necessary conditions must be supplied and actualized, which conceive the following ideas:

    a. Keeping anew every day, called abundance with virtue. Keeping anew everyday connotes that there emerge novel things, lives, and technologies constantly. To align in this attribute of change, man must create new things constantly, for, without creation, there will not be any novelty. Here virtue also conceives the meaning of achievements, which can be divided into internal achievements and external achievements, the former refer to enhancement of one's quality of culture, ethics, morale, and scientific-technology, the latter to benefiting others where by he/she will achieves. This is to say, through creating and keeping anew every day, one can accomplish both the internal and external achievements.

    b. Extremity leads to opposite, and two opposite things oppose and yet complement each other. Things turn into their opposites when they reach the extreme. For instance, for the connection between hexagrams Tai and Pi , the Xu gua zhuan ( the Orderly Sequence of the Hexagrams , one of the Ten Wings ) accounts: “ Tai denotes things having free course. They can not have that for ever, and hence it is followed by Pi (connoting being shut up and restricted). And for the remarks affiliated to the topmost line of hexagram Qian 乾 of “(we see its subject as) the dragon exceeding the proper limits. There will be occasion for repentance”, the Wen yan expanded: “‘exceeding the proper limits' indicates the knowing of advance but not to retire; to maintain but not to let perish; to get but not to lose.” In other words, advancing without stopping must lead to declination; one who cannot keep vigilant when being in safety must be subjected to being defeated; and those being insatiably avaricious must finally lose a lot. This advises that we should know the idea of that “extremity leads to opposite” and perceive the both opposite and complementary correlation between Yin and Yang , advancing and retreating, surviving and perishing, gaining and losing. Therefore, the subject should be apprehensive to nip the harmful tendencies in the bud.

    c. Acting as the time passes and requires. The Wen yan comments the remarks of “the dragon exceeds the (proper) limit; — there will be occasion for repentance” affiliated to the topmost line of hexagram Qian 乾 as: “The time is come to an end, and so also is the subject's opportunity.” That is to say, the subject cannot adapt himself as the time requires but enter into the extreme and thus he is heading to failure, declination, and loss. The figures esteemed by the author of Wen yan are those sage-like who “know to advance and to retire, to maintain and to let perish, and that without ever acting incorrectly”. Only those who perceive the idea and act correctly can conduct as the time passes and requires persistently. Yet, how to realize this goal? As the remarks attached to the third line of hexagram Qian 乾 explicates, “the superior man is active and vigilant all the day, and in the evening (still) careful and apprehensive. (The position and circumstance) is dangerous, but there will be no mistake”. So, perseverance and vigilance can make it possible to adapt oneself as the time requires and accomplish his/her aspiration.

 

    3) Great Harmony Preserved in Union

    Harmony in union is the initial value and quintessence of Chinese national culture. As it describes in the Tuan of Qian 乾 : “The Dao (Way) of Qian 乾 is to change and transform, so that everything obtains its correct nature as appointed (by the mind of Heaven); and (thereafter the conditions of) great harmony are preserved in union. The result is ‘what is advantageous, and correct and firm'”, the changes and transformations initiated by Heaven had broken the former orders and regulation, everything need to evolve by its inherent nature and rule, and each country or nation should develop itself in alignment with its unique characteristics. This state is called “everything obtains its correct nature as appointed (by the mind of Heaven)”. So far as the “great harmony preserved in union” is concerned, Wang Bi annotated it as “toughness is a state of disharmony”, meaning that, without the balance of Yin represented by Kun the Yang embodied by Qian will manifest like toughness and lead to failure and ruin. Mutual complements between Yin and Yang , and the balance between hardness and softness can give rise to the “great harmony preserved in union”. In this way, all the creatures can flourish and all states become peaceful and prosperous.

    It is harmony that accounts for the state of that “the heaven create everything and the myriad states all enjoy repose” (described in the Tuan of Qian ). Xi ci zhuan (II) further expanded: “Intermingling of the genial influence of heaven and earth gives rise to transformations in its various forms and intercommunication of seed between male and female causes transformation in its living types.” The heaven and earth, male and female symbolized by Qian and Kun form pairs of opposite poles wherein the intermingling and intercommunication give birth to various new things. This coincides with the implication expounded in Gu yu Zheng yu (Remarks of Monarchs): “Harmonious intercourses of different elements can produce new things while the same element cannot give birth to new things successively.” And as the Tuan of Ge (Revolution, the 49 th hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi ) extended: “Two daughters dwell together, but with their minds directed to different objects”, purporting that two females can not give birth to child.

    The idea of “great harmony preserved in union” has exerted great influence upon Chinese national politics, economics, culture, thinking, internal policy and diplomacy. In dealing with the relationship between human and nature, influenced by the ideas conceived in the Zhouyi , Chinese people uphold the “union of heaven and human”, respect the “mutual influence between heaven and human”, and strive to perceive the state that “the heaven, earth, inclusive of the myriad things and oneself are incorporated into one entity”; in dealing the relationship between man and society, Chinese nation abide by that “harmony is most valuable in social etiquette”, and “living harmoniously with others”; in dealing with international relationship, Chinese nation is in favor of friendship with neighbors and harmony with other nations; in dealing with interpersonal relationship, it maintains amiability and helping each other; in dealing with relationship between different civilizations, it insists on coexistence and harmony within which there may be different opinions; in regard to balance of one's body and mind, it respects tranquility of mind to attain longevity; for the relationship between family members, it insists that “harmony in the family leads to prosperity in all undertakings”; and in dealing with commercial affairs, it believes that “harmony brings wealth”; and so on. Therefore, not only does harmony penetrate into each layer of social lives, but also become the guiding idea for social conducts.

 

BREADING OF CHINESE THINKING MODE

 

As the root and origin of Chinese national culture, the Zhouyi has always been breeding Chinese national thinking mode within which the image thinking, harmony thinking, and Yin-yang thinking differ from Western conceptual logic thinking, the former is based upon the “harmony of different elements”, the latter upon the creating mode described in Genesis .

 

    1) Intuitive Thinking by Images

    Interrelated to numbers and principle, images refer to the trigrams or hexagrams composed of symbols of Yin ( ) and Yang ( ). According to Zuozhuan Xi gong Shi wu Nian (the 15 th Year during the Reign of Duke Xi of State Lu in the Zuo's Spring and Autumn Annals), “the omens formed in the tortoise shell are called images while what the yarrow stalks embody are called numbers”. So far, numbers have been discovered on the excavated divinatory tortoise shells of the early Western Zhou dynasty. It should be a long period for the development from the digit numbers which compose the hexagrams on earthen wares, to the omens on tortoise shells, and finally to the symbols of Yin and Yang . The eight trigrams, according to Xi ci zhuan , were thus created: “Anciently, when Baoxi (i.e. Fuxi) had come to the rule of all under heaven, looking up, he contemplated the brilliant forms exhibited in the sky, and looking down, he surveyed the patterns shown on the earth. He contemplated the ornamental appearances of birds and beasts and the (different) suitability of the soil. Near at hand, in his own body, he found things for consideration, and the same at a distance, in things in general. On this he devised the eight trigrams, to show fully the attributes of the spirit-like and intelligent (operations working secretly), and to classify the qualities of the myriads of things.” This is to say, the images are abstracted and classified from different qualities of things to help us perceived the principle. This is a manifestation of intuitive thinking based on images.

    After a period of time, the images implicated in the eight trigrams were combined with numbers and synthesized as a cosmological expression: “In (the system of) the Yi , there is the Tai ji , which produced the two elementary Forms. Those two forms produced the Four emblematic Symbols, which again produced the eight trigrams. The eight trigrams served to determine the good and evil (issues of events), and from this determination was produced the (successful prosecution of the) great business (of life).” ( Xi ci zhuan , section I) Since then, people began to explain the emergence and changes of various phenomena, including social transformation and everyday life.

    Each hexagram conceives a principle, which is deduced from the images. For instance, in hexagrams Ge (Revolution, the 49 th hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi , which is composed of trigrams Li symbolizing fire in the lower position and Dui symbolizing marsh in the lower position) and Ding (Caldron, the 50 th hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi , which is composed of trigrams Xun symbolizing wood and wind in the lower position and Li symbolizing fire in the upper position), the Xian of Ge expanded: “In the midst of the waters of a marsh is fire, the superior man, in accordance with this, regulates his (astronomical) calculations and makes clear the seasons and times.” Water and fire are opposite position to each other: either the former extinguishes the latter, or the former distills the latter out, indicating that the revolution is obliged to occur, and the Tuan of the hexagram set forth “Tang changed the appointment (of the line of Xia to the throne) and Wu (that of the line of Shang), in accordance with (the will of) Heaven, and in response to (the wishes of) men”. Abolishing the old connoted by hexagram Ge and introducing the new connoted by hexagram Ding , which was used as a cooking utensil in ancient China, are generally accomplished at the same time, a course of metabolism. As long as metabolism is smooth, man will be healthy and the society will develop fluently.

    This kind of intuitive thinking is accomplished from observing concrete objects, to abstracting images from the objects, to principles perceived from the images. Hence the images become the mediator and one can intuitively perceive the principles implicated in the images through the lines of Yin and Yang , trigrams, hexagrams, and numbers, and put the contents of thinking in the frame of trigrams-hexagrams. This approach can enlarge the space of thinking, on which indefinite charm is added. As Xi ci zhuan accounts “the sages made their emblematic symbols to set forth fully their ideas, appointed (all) the diagrams to show fully the truth and falsehood (of things), appended their explanations to give the full expression of their words”, one can perceive the idea in the images, grasp the abstracted significance in the symbols, and intuitively attain to state of union of heaven and human.

 

    2) Holistic thinking of harmony

    According to the Zhouyi , the myriads of things conceive the Dao of Yin and Yang , which is also exposed by the myriads of things. This Dao refers to an organic holistic entity with harmony. The Yin and Yang lines among which there are conflicts and unions form a hexagram, a holistic entity, which represents the waxing and waning, mutual penetration, interchangeableness, and mutual balancing between Yin and Yang . In holistic thinking, a concept or category is stipulated as a center to reflect the objects' internal and external concept group or category net of a holistic entity, and further expose the objects' internal and external regulations, relationships, and connections. This thinking in the Zhouyi unfolded with Yin and Yang as the center.

    It says in Shu gua zhuan : “Anciently, when the sages made the Yi , it was with the design that (its figures) should be in conformity with the principles underlying the natures (of men and things), and the ordinances (for them) appointed (by Heaven). With this view they exhibited (in them) the way of heaven, calling Yin and Yang , the way of earth, calling (them) the weak (or soft) and the strong (or hard), and the way of men, under the names of benevolence and righteousness.” Here the Three Powers of heaven, earth, and human are referred to as three aspects of one entity, it is, in brief, “union of heaven and earth”. As the Wen yan of Qian 乾 illustrates “the great man is he who is in harmony, in his attributes, with heaven and earth; in his brightness, with sun and moon; in his orderly procedure, with the four seasons; and in his relation to what is fortunate and what is calamitous, in harmony with the spirit-like operations (of Providence)”, harmony embodies the holistic harmonious state between heaven and human. This thinking by the harmonious heaven-human entity is to reveal the process for the relationship between heaven and human from conflicts, to conciliation, and finally to union. The terms of man's “no contrariety”, “no error”, “steadfastness”, “no anxiety”, and “benevolence” ( Xi ci zhuan , section I) to heaven illustrated the goal of ideal value of harmony.

 

    3) Logical thinking in Yin and Yang

    As the start of logical thinking, concept is a conceptual form which can be expressed by letters or characters and symbols as well. The Yi jing takes use of symbols of and to express concepts of Yin and Yang respectively. In the remote antiquity, to adapt themselves to agriculture and animal husbandry, people were able to differentiate facing the sun from backing the sun, and sunny day was called “ Yang day” while cloudy day was called “ Yin day” in Jia gu wen , inscriptions on tortoise shells or animal bones of the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties. Along with the abundance of the objects symbolized by Yin and Yang , Yin and Yang were gradually abstracted as concepts, by which the concepts of change, time, minutest spring (of things), great virtue, constant producing, principle, nature, destiny, and so on were generalized upon which logical thinking can be carried on.

    The sequence of the 64 hexagrams in the received version of the Zhouyi embodies a logical thinking, in that they are arranged according to regulation of “either reversion or obversion (between a polarity of two hexagrams” (raised by Kong Yingda [574-648] in his compilation of Zhou yi Zheng yi , Rectification of the Meanings of the Zhouyi ). For instance, hexagram Meng (the 4 th hexagram in the received version of the Zhouyi ) is a reversed hexagram of Zhun (the 3 rd one), whereas hexagram Li (the 30 th one) is an obverted hexagram of Kan (the 29 th one), for the lines of Yin and Yang of the two hexagrams are completely opposite. Therefore, the sequence of the hexagrams is arranged with the idea of that there is union in oppositeness, and all 64 hexagrams form a holistic structure by “either reversion or obversion”.

    In the logical thinking in the Zhouyi , the law of causality is its main mode, by which to explain the correlation between the statements to the images. By this approach, the objective connections (between things) are replaced by logic of thinking, and contingency is treated as causality, exhibited in the connections between the operations of stalk and the formation of hexagrams, between the name of a hexagram and the remarks affiliated to it and the image of it, between auspiciousness or ominousness and the image of a line, and so on. The connotations derive from the images, the principle from analysis of specific events, future development from the first small beginnings. As saying goes in Xi ci zhuan (section I), “(affairs) are arranged together according to their tendencies and things are divided according to their classes”, in the Zhouyi , the multitude of things in the universe are divided into 8 types according to their attributes and functions, things corresponding and communicating each other are classified into one type, representing a leap of Chinese national thinking ability. This kind of inference is based on the things' attribute of Yin or Yang and its positions in a hexagram, by which to predict or deduce the future tendencies.

 

INFLUNCE UPON NATURAL SCIENCES

 

The operations and practice of the Zhouyi in various dynasties greatly urged natural sciences and technologies to advance. The Zhouyi with Yin-yang theory as its theoretic core and its symbolic system constitute a distinctive theoretic structure and mode from which Chinese national cosmology, methodology, axiology, and scientific theories derive. Its influence upon Chinese traditional sciences mainly covers astronomy, agronomy, medicine and pharmacy, geography, mathematics, art of architecture, alchemy refinery, and science of health preservation, and so on.

    Astronomy . According to Xi ci zhuan , “(the sage), in accordance with (the Yi ), looking up, contemplates the brilliant phenomena of the heavens, and looking down, examines the definite arrangements of the earth”, both astronomy (relating to the studies of the phenomena of the heavens) and geography (concerning the studies of earth) were mentioned. The Yi -ologists in the Han dynasty correlated the trigrams and hexagrams to seasonal points, founding the Gua-qi theory. San tong li pu (San tong Calendric System) credited to Liu Xin (53 B.C. -23 A .D.), Qian xiang li (Calendric System by the Image of Heaven) completed in the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220), Zheng guan li , a calendric system in the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534), and Da yan li , a calendric system in the Tang dynasty (618-907) were based on the Gua-qi theory. In his Li ben yi (On the Root of Calendar) credited to Monk Yi xing interprets calendric system by the concepts and symbolic system of the Zhouyi . Meng Xi and Jing Fang (77-37 B.C.) correlated the eight trigrams and sixty-four hexagrams, twelve waning and waxing hexagrams to different seasonal points. Moreover, Jing Fang adopted the heavenly stems, five elements, and twenty eight constellations into his hexagram system. Therefore, the Zhouyi was of theoretical significance to astronomy and Chinese calendric system.

    Sciences of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Health Preservation. Traditional Chinese medicine is founded on the Yin-yang theory by which Huang di nei jin ( the Yellow Emperor's Internal Classic of Medicine ) analyzes the structure of human body, explicates physiological functions and pathological changes, and engages in treatment. Man's living activity relies on the balance between Yin and Yang , whereas the imbalance between them will result in illness and the depletion of Yin and Yang will lead to death. The discrimination of Yin and Yang is the first law for the four methods of diagnosis — observation (of the patient's complexion, expression, movements, tongue, etc.), auscultation and olfaction, interrogation, and pulse feeling and palpation. “The deficiency of Yang will cause internal coldness while the deficiency of Yin will lead to internal heat.” The treatment procedure and purpose is to regulate and balance Yin and Yang . Zhang Zhongjing (c. 150-219) founded the six-meridian theory which is associated with the six lines of a hexagram and implies endless changes and transformation. The science of health preservation is based on the theory of intercommunication between heaven and human, as the Internal Classic set forth: “(Man) should be in conformity with Yin and Yang , and adapt to the changes of the four seasons”, “live in the harmony of Yin and Yang , be in line with the shifts between the eight winds (corresponding to the eight seasonal points and trigrams)”. With Yin and Yang balanced and regulated, man's body and mind will become sound and strengthened.

    Mathematics. Yin-yang theory is the basis for ancient Chinese mathematics, Zhoubi Suanjing (a classic work on astronomy and mathematics written in the first century B.C. during the Western Han dynasty) and Jiuzhang Suanshu (Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art) written in the Western Han dynasty being the examples. Liu Hui said in his Jiuzhang Suanshu Zhuxu (Preface for the Annotations of the Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art): “The theory of Yin-yang is the root of the mathematical art.” Zhao Shuang of the Han dynasty explicates the Pythagorean theorem in Zhoubi Suanjing by Yin-yang theory and raised that “mathematical art derives from squares and circles”, by which from the Pythagorean theorem to cutting circle art, to circular cone making art is deduced, different from Western mathematics development.

    Art of Architecture. The thought of intercommunication between heaven and human, “heaven being loft and earth being low”, and being mean and timely conceived in the Zhouyi had already become the guiding principles for the art of architecture in China. No matter for the imperial palaces, or capitals, and even commoners' houses, all architectures were designed and constructed in alignment with the geomancy (i.e. Feng shui Xue , theory of Water and Wind), which can be traced back to as early as the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties. Geomancy was also combined with theories of Yin-yang , five-element, and eight trigrams, forming distinctive characteristics of Chinese architecture.

    In sum, in the course of growth and development of Chinese nation, the Zhouyi has been exerting indispensable influence and significance. It has been permeating through various layers of Chinese national culture, and had always been affecting Chinese national politics, economics, sciences, art and thinking mode, axiology, ethics, spirit, ultimate concerns, and so on. For this reason, one who does not know the Zhouyi can neither really understand Chinese culture, nor perceive the essence of Chinese culture, nor correctly recognize its true features. Therefore, the Zhouyi is a key to the door of Chinese culture. As the Zhouyi is a valuable source in the treasure of Chinese traditional culture, we should probe into it in depth to prosper it, and make contributions to the development of the world culture.

 

CHINESE GLOSSARY

                                  

Ban Gu                                        班固                                    Qian                                                        谦

Baoxi                            包牺                        Qian xiang li                           《乾象历》

Cai                               蔡                           Qin                                     秦

Chen                             陈                           San tong li pu                          《三统历谱》

Da Xiang                       《大象》                            Shang                                   商

Da yan li                        《大衍历》                          Shang shu Hong fan                  《尚书·洪范》

Dao                              道                              Shi yi                                    《十翼》

Ding                             鼎                           Shuo gua zhuan                       《说卦传》

Dui                              兑                           Si-ma Qian                             司马迁

Duke Wen of Teng             滕文公                             Tai                                      泰

Feng shui Xue                  风水学                         Tai ji                                    太极

Fuxi                              伏羲                        Tang                                    汤

Ge                               革                           Tang                                    唐

Gen                              艮                           Tuan                                    《彖》

Gu yu Zheng yu                《国语·郑语》                 Wang Bi                                王弼

Gua-qi                          卦气                        Wen yan                                《文言》

Han shu Yi wen zhi            《汉书·艺文志》                  Wu                                      武

Huang di nei jin                《黄帝内经》                    Xi ci zhuan                             《系辞传》

Jia gu wen                      甲骨文                     Xia                                      夏

Jing Fang                        京房                        Xu                                       需

Jiuzhang Suanshu             《九章算术》                    Xun                                     巽

Jiuzhang Suanshu Zhuxu     《九章算术注序》                  Yan Hui                                颜回

Kun                              坤                         Yi jing                                   《易经》

Li                                离                         Yi Zhuan                                《易传》

Li ben yi                         《历本议》                   Yin-yang                                阴阳

Lin                               临                         Zhang Zhongjing                      张仲景

Liu Hui                          刘徽                        Zhao Shuang                           赵爽

Liu Xin                          刘歆                        Zheng guang li                        《正光历》

Mencius                         《孟子》                      Zhou                                    周

Meng                            蒙                         Zhou yi Zheng yi                      《周易正义》

Meng Xi                        孟喜                        Zhou li Chun guan                    《周礼·春官》

Monk Yi xing                   僧一行                       Zhoubi Suanjing                      《周髀算经》

Pi                                否                          Zuozhuan Xi gong Shi wu Nian  《左传·僖公十五年》

Qian                             乾                              Zhun                                    屯              

 

 

This paper was originally published in Chinese in Zhouyi Yanjiu 《周易研究》 (Studies of Zhouyi) in 2005:3, pp.3-9.

Zhang Li-wen, Professor and Supervisor, Institute of Confucianism Studies , Remin University of China; Specialties: logical structure of Chinese philosophy, studies of cultural philosophy system.