Simultaneously on the similarities and differences between Confucianism, Daoism and Yi in linguistic philosophy

WU Gen-you

(Department of Philosophy, School of Humanities , Wuhan University , Wuhan 430072, China )

Translated from Chinese by ZHANG Wen-zhi

(Center for Zhouyi & Ancient Chinese Philosophy, Shandong University , Jinan 250100, China )

 

Abstract: This paper attempts to make a primary analysis on the linguistic philosophy in Yi Zhuan , Confucianism represented by Confucius, Mencius and Xun zi's thoughts, and Daoism represented by Lao zi and Zhuang zi's thoughts, and make a tentative research on the issues related to linguistic philosophy in the pre-Qin period philosophy, to study what characteristics of Chinese language some of the pre-Qin thinkers had examines. This paper supplies some inspiration for us to introspect the relationship between modern Chinese language and modern Chinese philosophy.

Key words: Yi Zhuan ; Confucianism; Daoism; linguistic philosophy

 

I. Cause of the issue

 

It is well know that, since the early period of the 20 th century when a great number of western academic ideas and terms were adopted, the state of loss of language of Chinese academics has been lasting for nearly a century. But, till nowadays, we become really self-conscious of the state. Rethinking of the rationality of Chinese philosophy by Chinese academic circle at present is a reflection of the rethinking of national academic forms under present historical circumstances by Chinese scholars. Philosophy, a completely transplanted new branch of science, had dissected traditional studies of Chinese classics and moral principles. Yet, it is on account of this kind of dissection, traditional academics gained unprecedented vitality in new language forms. In the dialogues between “ China and West, ancient and present”, philosophy as a new branch of science had obtained its particular form in China . And therefore I think that it had become senseless to discuss whether there is Chinese philosophy or not at present, for even since the 20 th century we should not ignore the academic tradition formed in the past nearly 100 years. The crux of the matter is that how should we confirm its identification? I myself hold that seeking its own linguistic system of modern Chinese philosophy is one of the effective approaches to constructing modern Chinese philosophy and an attempt to treat the aphasia of Chinese philosophy. Though language is not the only way in expressing one's idea, philosophical thinking and expression is inseparable from language. It is difficult to imagine a philosophy without its national language. From the angle of the ideological construction and expression, philosophy is a reconstruction of language, in other words, philosophy is to construct itself with the help of the medium of language. The turning of direction of the western philosophy in the 20 th century in China urged many scholars to make deep philosophical consideration on linguistic issues, making linguistic philosophy one of the prominent branches and having interpreted many metaphysical issues. Heidegeer had exaggeratedly said in his early years: “Language is the home of existence”. And thus the correlation between language and philosophy was manifested. Here I adopt the terms of “linguistic philosophy” to analyze the philosophical linguistic views conceived in Yi Zhuan in a broad sense, for all philosophical thinking on language could be considered as the thought of linguistic philosophy, to examine the level of self-consciousness of ancient Chinese philosophers to language with help of the new prospect of modern western philosophy, to seek an ideological historical reference to expression by language. Engels in his Natural Dialectics had highly confirmed Germen religious reformer Martin Louid's clarification to his national language and praised him of clearing the “Augean stables” of the language of Germen. ① Chinese scholars of the 18 th century had become fairly conscious of their own national language issues. Represented by DAI Zhen, “Sinologists of the Sect of Wan ( Anhui Province )” raised the famous propositions of linguistic philosophy and hermeneutics: “comprehending terms by character, and comprehending the Dao (Way) through terms”. In criticizing the specific propositions of the neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties, they made a special formal analysis on Chinese grammar, making an in-depth analysis on the differences of two subject-predicate forms in expressing senses, breaking a path for the analysis on Chinese philosophy by Chinese grammar. The Vernacular Movement in the earlier period of the 20 th century could also be considered as a movement of linguistics by which Chinese philosophy and ideologies change from classical to modern forms. But in the former 70 years of the 20 th century, because the main theme of Chinese society focuses on the studies of advanced western systems and sciences & technologies, we had no time to contemplate the distinctive characteristics of Chinese culture, let alone contemplate linguistic philosophical issues in modern western philosophy, and it was impossible for us to seriously examine linguistic philosophical issues in Chinese philosophical traditions. Even by nowadays, scholars studying Chinese philosophy did not pay enough attention to the linguistic issues in their own national philosophy. This paper tries to make a tentative analysis on the linguistic philosophical thoughts in Yi Zhuan , and Confucianism represented by Confucius, Mencius, and Xun zi's thoughts, and Daoism represented by Lao zi and Zhuang zi's ideologies, and make a research on the issues related to linguistic philosophy in the pre-Qin philosophy to characteristics of Chinese language examined by some thinkers in the pre-Qin period ② . It is my hope that this attempt will give us some inspiration to retrospect the relationship between modern Chinese language and philosophy.

 

II. Five Aspects Concerning Linguistic Philosophy in Yi Zhuan

 

In the linguistic philosophy of the thoughts of the pre-Qin times, those of Confucianism and Daoism were of most representative. Daoism generally holds a passive attitude to the function of language in expressing idea and insists “speech could not completely express the idea”. I call it a retrospective passive view of the function of language. Confucian scholar's attitude to language is of some complexity, on one hand, they were conscious of the phenomena of the disaccord between language and fact and that speech could not completely express the idea, and therefore Confucius stresses all the time the conformity between words and action. Mencius said: “if we completely believe the speech, it is advisable to have no speech”. He also differentiated artificial exaggeration from historical works and languages recording daily events; on the other hand, they were confident of the function of seriously polished language in conveying the idea, and thus they chase for colorful language. For instance, Confucius said: “if one's language is not colorful, it will not spread to far distance”, implying that colorful language might be transmitted to far distance, and thus Confucius also uttered: “with colorful and courtesy language, one could become a superior man”. In the two big linguistic philosophical traditions, Yi Zhuan is in mediation: on one hand, the author(s) of Yi Zhuan were clearly conscious of the limitation of language in expressing the idea; on the other hand, they did not on account of this deny the value of language, but strive to compensate the drawbacks of language in expressing the idea in an “conveying the idea by the images”, embodying the authors' positive and dialectical linguistic philosophical thought. This is much different from the Daoist's contradictory view on language of that they on one hand deny the value of language, but on the other hand utilize language. By the entire ideological tendency, the linguistic view of Yi Zhuan 's authors is attributed to Confucianism but not Daoism.

 

•  “The sages set forth the hexagrams, inspected the emblems contained in them, and appended their explanations, in this way the good fortune and bad (indicated by them) were made clear”: the cognition of the special function of language by Yi Zhuan

In the opinion of the Yi Zhuan 's authors, language is one the sages' four ways in administrating the world under heaven: “In the Yi there are four things characteristic of the way of the sages. We should set the highest value on its explanations to guide us in speaking; on its changes for (the initiation of) our movements; on its emblematic figures for (definite action as in) the construction of implements; and on its prognostication for our practice of divination”, and “the sages' feelings could be seen by the remarks (affiliated to the hexagrams and lines.” And therefore, language is not only one of the efficacious tools in administrating the world under heaven, but also one of the media to express their feelings to make the people under heaven understand their sentiments. It also says in Yi Zhuan : “The right administration of the wealth, correct instructions to the people, and prohibitions against wrong doing. These constitute the righteousness”. Two important aspects in social administration are but to correctly administrate the wealth & correct instructions by speech to the people, and prohibit against wrong doings. The importance of correcting instructions by speech to the people is parallel to that of correctly administrating the wealth, and hence the function of speeches could be obviously seen in social administration. Speaking in combination, “right administration of the wealth and correct instructions to the people” belong to active principles, while “prohibitions against wrong doing” to passive ones. Since speeches could exert such important functions in social administration, “when a superior man is bout to take action of a more private or of a public character, he asks (the Yi ), making inquiry in words. He receives his order, and the answer comes as echo's response.” (Section I of Xi Ci ) In the application of language, the authors of Yi Zhuan hold an active attitude. Recognizing the important actual function of language, they clearly acknowledged its general characteristics, speeches with different qualities, functions and applying mode.

The authors of Yi Zhuan defined the distinctive qualities of language by comparing the different functions of the two tools expressing the idea, i.e. language and image: language is the tool for the sages to explicate fortune and misfortune. For instance, it says in Section I of Xi Ci : “The sages set forth the diagrams, inspected the emblems contained in them, and appended their explanations, in this way the good fortune and bad (indicated by them) were make clear. The strong and weak (lines) displace each other, and produced the changes and transformations (in the figures)”, and “the discriminations of good and bad fortune appear in the (subjoined) explanative speech”, and therefore “the superior man, when living quietly, contemplates the emblems and studies the explanations of them; when initiating any movement, he contemplates the changes (that are made in divining), and studies the prognostications from them”. Here “study” refers to “ponder”, to extend that through repeatedly figuring out the meanings implicated in the explanations to judge the good or bad fortune indicated by them. Thus the function of the explanations is to predict the future circumstances by logical inferences. Here contains not only the pursuit for new knowledge, whereas not being limited by pure knowledge, but being related to the consideration of human value.

What are the explanative words? “The explanative words designate the implications of the objects.” (Section I of Xi Ci ). That is to say, terms in language indicate different objects respectively, and thus the names always accord to objects. But the “objects” here are certainly not objective realities, probably refer to a conceptual “object”, for different terms always designates different objects, which are certainly not the objectively existing things. When the sage governs the world under heaven, on one hand, he “surveys all the complex phenomena under the heaven. He then consider in his mind how they could be figured, and (by means of the diagrams) represented their material forms and their character. Hence these (diagrams) are denominated semblances”; on the other hand, he “surveys the motive influences working all under the heaven. He contemplated them in their common action and special nature, in order to bring out the standard and proper tendency of each. He then appended his explanation (to each line of the diagrams), to determine the good or evil indicated by it. Hence those (lines with their explanations) are denominated imitations. (The diagrams) speak of the most complex phenomena under the heaven, and yet there is nothing in them that need awaken dislike; the explanation of the lines speak of the subtlest movements under the sky, and yet there is nothing in them to produce confusions. (A learner) will consider what is said (under the diagrams), and then speak; he will deliberate on what is said (in the explanations of the lines), and then move. By such consideration and deliberations he will be able to make all the changes he undertakes successful. Therefore, the sage obtains the imitations to the objects through an emblematic way, exposes the connotations implicated in the denominated semblances through analyzing and the explanations to reach a judgment, by the ways of which to grasp the principles of changes under the heaven by a comprehensive consideration. In this way, we could further see that the explanative words do not certainly refer to objective realities. By the views of the authors' of Yi Zhuan , only the mutual cooperation between the images and explanative words is able to adequately reveal the norm for changes under the heaven. Therefore, the speeches and words (language in narrow sense) become one of the indispensable tools and bear function of prognosticating the tendency of good or bad fortune. Thus this attitude to language is much different from the Daoism's passive one.

 

•  Thinking on the issue of the language's function and circumstance in Yi Zhuan

 

The authors of Yi Zhuan have a dialectical recognition to the unique function of language. Generally speaking, language is able to urge people under the heaven to move. For instance, they said: “The most thorough mastery of all the complex phenomena under the heaven is obtained from the diagrams. The greatest stimulus to movement in adaptation to all affairs under the heaven is obtained from the explanations”. (Section I of Xi Ci ) That is to say, the profound implications under the heaven dwell in the trigrams and hexagrams, while the potential motive force making people under the heaven dwell in language, and thus language become a power.

Dividedly speaking, good speeches will result in good, while bad speeches in bad, and the authors of Xi Ci had sharply recognized different social functions of the languages with different qualities, as its says in Section I of Xi Ci : “The Master said: ‘The superior man occupies his apartment and sends forth his words. If they are good, they will be responded to at a distance of more than a thousand li (one li is equal to a half of kilometer), and how much more will they be so in the nearer circle! He occupies his apartment and sends forth his words. If they are evil, they will awaken oppositions at a distance of more than a thousand li , and how much more will they do so in the nearer circle! Words issue from one's person, and proceed to affect the people. Actions proceed from what is near, and their effects are seen at a distance. Words and actions are the hinge and spring of the superior man. The movement of that hinge and spring determines glory or disgrace. His words and actions move heaven and earth, may he be careless in regard to them?” Confucius said: “The superior man should be keen in actions and prudent in speaking”. The view for actions and words held by the authors of Yi Zhuan just coincide with Confucius' thought.

The authors of Yi Zhuan specially exhorted us to pay attention to the negative function of language. Especially in political lives, speaking ought to be more prudent. “The Master said: ‘when disorder arises, it will be found that (ill-advised) speech was the stepping-stone to it. If a ruler does not keep secret (his deliberations with his minister), he will lose that minister. Lf a minister do not keep (his deliberations with his ruler), he will lose his life. If (important) matters in the germ are not kept secret, that will be injurious to their accomplishment. Therefore the superior man is careful to maintain secrecy, and does not make himself to speak.” (Section I of Xi Ci ) In this way, thinking to the circumstance of language turns out to be an important content in the linguistic philosophy of the authors of Yi Zhuan . How and under what circumstance should the ruler persuade the commoners effectively? The authors of Section II of Xi Ci hold “being restful and easy before one speaks.” “The Mater said: ‘The superior man (in a high place) composes himself before he (tries to) move others, makes his mind restful and easy before he speaks, settles (the principle of) his intercourse with others before he seeks anything from them. The superior man cultivates these three things, and so is complete. If he tries to move others while he is himself in unrest, the people will not (act) with him; if he speaks while he is himself in a state of apprehension, the people will not respond to him; if without (certain principles of) intercommunication, he issue his request, the people will not grant them.” (Section II of Xi Ci). Only if the superior man had moved the people by his actual actions, could he persuade the people under the heaven with his speeches. The agitation function of speeches depends upon efficacious actions. It is because the both speeches and actions are the tools for the superior man to move the world under heaven, that he ought to be prudent in words and deeds. He should be prudent in both the content of speech and the time of speech, the latter relating to the circumstance for the application of language.

 

•  The recognition of the limitation of the language's function in expressing the idea by Yi Zhuan and the remedy.

 

The recognition of the limitation of the language's function in expressing the idea by the authors of Yi Zhuan was manifested mainly through the tension between historical works and the sages' idea, as it says in Section I of Xi Ci : “The Master said: ‘The written characters are not the full exponent of speech, and speech is not the full expression of ideas. Is it impossible then to discover the ideas of the sages?' The Master said: ‘The sages make their emblematic symbols to set forth fully their ideas, appointed the trigrams and hexagrams to show fully the truth and falsehood (of things), appended their explanations to give the full expression of their words, and changed (the various lines) and made general the method of doing so, to exhibit fully what was advantageous. They (thus) stimulated (the people) as by drums and dances, thereby completely developing the spirit-like (character of the Yi)'”. That is to say, the written language like historical works cannot complete reveal the sages' ideas. Yet, the sages may hint their ideas through images (symbolized by trigrams and hexagrams), and show fully the truth and falsehood of things under heaven according the alternations and transformations between hexagrams and lines. Thus we could comprehend the sages' spirit through three different levels: through the remarks affiliated to the hexagrams and lines, i.e. the sages' speeches, to grasp the sages' ideas they had clearly voiced out; through the images implicated in the hexagrams to attain to the spirit the sages had conveyed, but not clearly pointed out; through the alternations and transformations between the hexagrams and lines to comprehend the uncertainty of changes in the heaven and earth. And therefore to master the ideas the sages had hinted but could not be clearly explicated, we must transcend over the barrier of the expression of language, and contemplate the sages' ideas through the process of the changes between the hexagrams and lines.

Therefore, the authors of Yi Zhuan were conscious of the limitations of the remarks in Yi in expressing the ideas and even the limitations of the images in exposing ideas. They wanted to send forth: “The Yi is a book which should not be let slip from the mind. Its method (of teaching) is marked with the frequent changing (of its lines). They change and move without staying (in one place), flowing about into any one of the six places of the hexagram. They ascend and descend, ever inconstant. The strong and the weak lines change places, so that an invariable and compendious rule cannot be derived from them. And thus it must vary as their changes indicate.” This is to say, any remarks in Zhouyi are the first step of approach to the ideas: “Beginning with taking note of its explanations, we reason out the principles to which they point.” (Section II of Xi Ci ). But we should not be limited by this step to seek the significance transcending over (the expression of) language. After we “find out that it does supply a constant and standard rule”, (ibid) we ought to practice, especially to get a thorough and wise understanding to the original features of variable changes of the reality. For this reason, the understanding to the ideas implicated in the Yi should not only stay at the level of speeches. But the authors of Yi Zhuan did not ask people to abandon the function of language in expressing ideas. This shows the value of the views to the language in expressing meanings from the authors of Yi Zhuan .

 

•  Writing with the establishment of sincerity: the correlation between language expression and virtue

 

The function of language fairly differs from that of virtues and deeds. The latter is realized through affecting others, as it says in Section I of Xi Ci : “The completing (the study of the principles of the Yi ) by silent meditation, and securing the faith of others without the use of words, depended on their virtuous conduct.” But human virtue is not unrelated to words. Though, for its origin, human virtue comes from the Dao (Way) of heaven, as it says in Section I of Xi Ci : “The successive movement of the inactive (Yin) and active (Yang) operations constitutes the Dao. That which ensues as the result (of their movement) is goodness; that which shows it in its completeness in the natures (of men and things), yet, how do human make the goodness of nature of the Dao of heaven exhibited in human nature? The words then become the must for it. It also says in Wen Yan : “He is sincere (even in his ordinary words, and earnest in his ordinary conduct. Guarding against depravity, he preserves his sincerity. His goodness is recognized in the world, but he does not boast of it. His virtue is extensively displayed, and transformation ensues”, and “the superior man's real-heartedness and good faith are the way by which he advances in virtue. His attention to his words and establishing his sincerity are the way by which he occupies in his sphere.” By the views of Confucianism, esp. the sect of Zi si and Mencius, sincerity displays the Dao of heaven, that which making it sincere is the Dao of human, and the superior man's virtue is obtained through imitating the Dao of heaven. Yet, this immanent “sincerity” is attained through the sincerity in daily words, prudence in daily conducts, and attention to words. Paying attention to words does not refers to, in a general sense, polishing words, but through repeated citing of classical speeches and contemplating time and again on the connotations implicated in it, by the way of which to establish in human nature the sincerity similar to the Dao of heaven. Therefore, the sincerity established in paying attention to words is a kind of rational virtue, but not a religious experience. For this reason, language plays a very important role in the course of establishing the noumenon of virtue. Wen Yan confirmed the process for the superior man to accomplish the virtue is: “The superior man learns and accumulates the results of his learning, puts questions and discriminates among those results, dwells magnanimously and unambitiously in what he has attained to, and carries it into practice with benevolence.” So, language possesses its value in the course of accomplishing the virtue. This much differs from the Daoism's denying language of its value in the course of cultivation of virtue, and even differs from Confucius' opinion on the relationship between virtue and language. Confucius had uttered: “those who are of virtue must have (good) words, while those who have (good) words might not have virtue”, and even said: “Few of those who have a glib tongue and ingratiating manner is benevolent.” The authors of Yi Zhuan confirm the function of language in constructing the rationality of virtue. This is much different from Confucius' views related to the issue.

 

•  Introspective character and other qualities of the linguistic philosophy of Yi Zhuan

 

The author(s) of Xi Ci was (were) also conscious of the historical formational process of written language and the unique characteristics of the book of Zhouyi . And thus his (their) linguistic philosophy possesses the character of self-introspection. For the history of formation of written language, “in the highest antiquity, government was carries on successfully by the sue of knotted cords (to preserve the memory of things). In subsequent ages the sages substituted for these written characters and bonds. By means of these (the doings of) all the officers could be regulated, and (the affairs of) all the people accurately examined. This idea of this was taken, probably, from Guai (the 43 rd hexagram).” Written language was transformed from rough symbols, and the emerging of language was not a mystic issue. So, for the origin of language, the authors of Yi Zhuan basically hold a historically rational opinion. As for the unique linguistic characters of Zhouyi was concerned, Zhouyi as a book “exhibits the past, and (teaches us to) discriminate (the issues of) the future, it makes manifest what is minute, and brings to light what is obscure”, and therefore its linguistic characteristics display as: “the appellations and names (of the diagrams and lines) are but small matters, but the classes of things comprehended under them are large. Their scope reaches far, and the explanations attached to them are elegant. The words are indirect, but to the point; the matters seem plainly set forth, but there is a secret principle in them.” So, metaphors and symbolism constitute the obvious characters of the language of Zhouyi . This told us that, to understand the book of Zhouyi , we should not consider it as it stands, but adequately exert the function of imagination to comprehend the profound connotation implicated behind its language. In addition, from the history of the formation of Zhouyi , it was formed at the turn of the Yin and Zhou dynasties, and therefore was full of the consciousness of anxiety, as it says: “Was it not in the last age of Yin, when the virtue of Zhou had reached its highest point, and during the troubles between King Wen and (the tyrant) Zhou, that the (study of the Yi ) began to flourish? On this account the explanations (in the book) express (a feeling of) anxious apprehension.” (Section II of Xi Ci )

Besides, the author of the Section II of Xi Ci was conscious of the corresponsive relationship between language and man's actual mental state: “The language of him who is meditating a revolt (from the right) betrays his inward shame; that of him whose inward heart doubts about it diverges to other topics. The words of a good man are few; those of a coarse man are many. The words of one who slanders what is good are unsubstantial; those of him who is losing what he ought to keep are crooked.” From modern people's views, this correspondence between language and the objects might lose of simplicity, but at we could at least see the relationship between language and man's innate virtues and deeds, and it also related to circumstance linguistics, the depth and width of thinking over the relationship between speeches and the objects by ancient Chinese philosophers were also shown.

 

III. Views on language in the philosophy of Confucianism

 

Confucius' thought of the rectifications of names might be regarded as the basis of his linguistic philosophy. This manifests the linguistic philosophy of Confucianism originally possesses symbolism expecting the reality to correspond to the name. He laid emphasis on the superiority of norms. Confucius holds that “if language is incorrect, then what is said does not concord with what was meant; and if what is said does not concord with what was meant, what is to be done cannot be effected”. The match between the name and reality here refers to the correspondence between the variety of etiquettes under the system of rituals and man's conducts. Only when they are well corresponded, could man's words including the rulers' orders be logically and actually reasonable. “ Concord ” here indicates rationality, legitimization, and thus being in conformity to logic. If one's words are irrational, illegitimate, and illogical, he could not do a thing well. “Therefore the superior man uses only such language as is proper for speech, and only speaks of what it would be proper to carry into effect. The superior man, in what he says, leaves nothing to mere chance.” (Zi lu in the Analects of Confucius). So, the reasonability, legitimatization, being logical of the language (orders) became an indispensable condition for the accomplishment of a thing. Language thus obtained powerful social function.

Lao zi advocates simplicity, while Confucius upholds colorfulness. So, in discussing the personalities of a superior man, Confucius attaches much importance to colorfulness, holding “one can only be a true superior man when one has both polish (cultural language,) and substance (actual conducts)”. And therefore “polish” itself embraces the meaning of “substance”. Though “polish” cannot be equal to language, yet the polish includes polish of language. Confucius once said: “if the language (one uses) is not polished (and cultural), it will not spread far and last long”, and “if one does not learn the Book of Poetry, he cannot speak culturally.” It thus can be seen from the perfect of conveying ideas, Confucius paid much attention to language with aesthetic sense.

But, we should also be aware of that, in discussing the relationship between language and virtue, between language and conducts, Confucius pays more attention to virtues. Confucius said: “one who has virtues must have (proper) language, but one who has (proper) language may not have virtues”, and “few of those who have glib tongue and ingratiating manner is benevolent”, and “one who is resolute and steadfast but inarticulate is close to benevolence”. Setting up the heaven as an example, Confucius sighed: “What had the heaven spoken! (In spite of this,) the four seasons alternates, and the myriad of things grow.” Therefore, for the relationship between language and virtues and conducts, Confucius stresses virtues and conducts. He resolutely opposes the conducts going against speeches, but uphold the concord between words and deeds, saying: “the superior feel ashamed of exaggerated words over conducts.” For this reason, from the angle of moral philosophy, Confucius pays more attention to the priority of virtues and the supremacy of virtuous conducts. But here which one is heavier and which one is lighter are concluded by comparison. Confucius had also talked about the issue of circumstance in the application of language, as he said: “There are three mistakes that are liable to be make when waiting upon a superior man. To speak before being called upon to do so; this is called forwardness. Not to speak when called upon to do so; this is called secretiveness. To speak without first noting the expression of his face; this is called blindness.” ( Ji si in the Analects ) Therefore, in dealing with a superior man, one should pay attention to opportunity of speaking, to speak appropriately and timely. In this way, whether one speaks appropriately and timely or not reflects level of his virtues and conducts.

In the tradition of the thought of Confucianism, Mencius' contributions to linguistic philosophy are mainly reflected in two aspects: at first, to the unity between the language of historical works and the historical existence it described, he holds a prudent attitude, as he said: “If everything in the Book of History was believed, it would be better for the book not to have been written at all.” (Part B of Jin Xin , To Fully Develop the Kindness of the Heart, in Mencius ) Secondly, he was, to some extent, conscious of the mode in conveying the idea of different types of language, as he simply distinguished the characteristics of the superior man's language from that of folks, that of poetry, and daily one. It says in Mencius : “XIAN-QIU Meng asked, ‘The saying goes, ‘An emperor can not hold a man of sublime virtue as his subject, nor can a father hold him as his son.' When Shun, being emperor, stood facing south, Yao led the feudal princes in facing north to pay homage to him. Shun's father the Blind Old Man also faced north to pay homage to him. Shun looked uneasy upon seeing the Blind Old Man. Confucius said, ‘At that moment in what great danger was the empire!' Is it true that Confucius really said so?” Mencius answered: “No, these were the words not of a superior man, but of some rustic from Eastern Qi”, because according to the Yao Code , when Yao was getting on in years, he entrusted his empire to the care of Shun, and 28 years later, Yao passed away. It was until he had observed mourning for three years, that Shun ascended the throne. And thus language in legend differs much from the official formal language.

In addition, XIANG-QIU Meng set up some verses from the Book of Poetry to demonstrate the contradiction between the filial piety and the royal right. “The Book of Poetry says: ‘No land under the sky, But is all the king's land; No man in all the world, But is his subject therein.' Now, when Shun became emperor, what would be the Blind Man if not his subject?” Mencius answered, “This poem does not refer to what you say. It means that a high official, busy with the king's affairs, cannot care for his parents. What the author meant was this: ‘It is all the king's affairs. What a pity I should be so heavily burdened!' That is why when interpreting a poem, we should not distort the sense of phrases or sentences with any words, nor should we distort the real meaning of the poem with any phrases or sentences. The right way is to read the writer's real meaning into the expressions. If we interpret a poem by the literal sense of any phrases or sentences, we would go astray. The poem entitled Yun Han says: ‘Of Zhou's remaining people, There was not a survival.' If this were taken literally, the sentence would mean that not a single Zhou subject survived.” Therefore, we should be conscious of the differences between the exaggerative language of poetry and narrative language in declarative sentences. On the contrary, we should transcend from the superficial meanings of language to thoroughly grasp its deep connotations. American linguist of the 20 th century Jomskey particularly made a distinction between the superficial and deep structures of language, holding through deep grammatical shifts to expose the meanings implicated in a sentence or word. Though what Mencius held “not distorting the real meaning by the literal sense” did not indicate such a clear linguistic thought, he after all recognized the differences between the poetry language's superficial and deep meanings. It therefore can be seen that ancient Chinese philosophers had, to some extent, been conscious of the character of their national language in expressing meanings.

Mencius had also seen the influences of language on human mind and from the angle of social politics set forth his advocating of “refusing evil deeds and rejecting bawdy language”. And later people often on this account criticize Mencius' domineering manner. As a matter of fact, without the help of political power, criticism of ideology will never attain to a union of thought. Mencius once proudly said: “I know the (deep meanings of) language, and I am good at nourishing my broad moral Qi (force).” Therefore, consciousness of language may be regarded as an important character of Mencius' thought.

Xun zi's theory of rectification of name was developed from Confucius' thought on name. But he developed Confucius' linguistic philosophy to formal logic. At first, he classified the existent names: “When the monarchs of the recent generations making names, they make the names of legitimate and punishment follow the tradition of Shang (Dynasty), those of ranks or titles of nobility to Zhou, and those of letters to Rites, and the other concrete ones to established customs established in the variety of states of Chinese nation; in far distant areas, names are established by the exchanges and interflow of different customs of the above mentioned under different conditions.” ( Rectification of Name ) For the origin of names of different systems, Xun zi gave an analysis from the angle of history science, especially, his analysis on the cause of the origin of the scattered names showed his insight. In his opinion, many implications of meanings of language derived from folk established usage, and it was within the established language system people communicate. In addition, the scattered names, after they had vastly prevailed in the society, would become the “established names of later dynasties”. Thus the myriad of concepts in the system of official language actually came from the folk names.

From the level of logics, Xun zi divided “name” into two big classifications of the “Big Common Name” and “General Small Name”. He said: “For things, there is a big common name. By induction, the big common names own a bigger common name, to the non-common one. Sometimes we would like to illustrate all of them, for instance, for birds and beasts. Bird & beast is attributed to a general small name, by deduction, the general small name could be divided into numerous smaller names, till it could not be divided.” This thought offered theoretical support to more logically thinking.

Xun zi also classified name into solid names and good ones. This relates to the issues of name's certainty and non-certainty, and the norm for the appraisement. Xun zi said: “Name is not certainly solid, when it become established, it is solid. And thus the established name is called solid name. Name is not inherently good, the name that could be easily and directly understood is called a good name.” That is to say, there are no inevitable correlations between name and reality, but there is a man-made establishment, and the best “name” is the name that could be easily and directly understood.

In addition, Xun zi divided the confusions between name and reality into three kinds: confusing names with names, confusing names with realities, and confusing realities with names. The sayings such as “insult does not mean humiliation”, “the sage (who loves human) do not love himself”, “killing robber does not mean killing man” belong to the first case. In Xun zi's opinion, insult is humiliation, the sage is classified to human, and robbers are men, too, we should not regarded them into different classes on account of the difference of name. The propositions such as “mountain and deep pool are in the same level”, “there is no difference between emotion and desire”, “there is no relationship between dog & pig and sweetness, nor between big bell and music” are attributed to the second case. Mountain and deep pool in fact are not in the same level. Only when viewing them in a comparatively angle, would they be in the same level. But as the concept of “level” in formal logic has special fixed implication. Therefore explicating “level” by mountain and deep pool actually not in the same level has in fact distorted the normal meaning of the concept of “level”. Proposition as “oxy horse is not horse” belongs to the third case, for though we can create the name of “oxy horse”, yet there is no this kind of thing. So, to demonstrate the issue of “oxy horse is not horse” only by the (made-up) name of “oxy-horse” is to confuse the reality with name. Through the criticism on the views concerning name and reality in the School of Logicians , Xun zi summarized the erroneous phenomena into the above-mentioned three cases, to make a conclusion in a philosophical level on Confucius and Mencius' thought of rectification of name.

As the same as Confucius' basic value orientation, Xun zi pays much concern on actual politics. Thus he was very sensitive to the right of language. He asserted that only king has the right of making names. He said: “The king under the heaven makes names. When the names are made and fixed, the things they correspond to will be discriminated, thus the Dao (Way) could be carried out, and then the king could prudently lead people to use these names.” ( Rectification of Name ) Moreover, he regarded “the slackness of name, rising of absurd words, confusion of name and reality” as the result of the “fall of sage king”. Therefore, he insists that, the right of creation of language should not be granted to common people, but to the king. He holds that the form of rational language explication could attain to political good governance. If the sage king falls, the crafty and evil sayings will arise. In the time of contending between a multitude of schools when “the superior man has no right to control and no sentence to forbid (the rising of the crafty and evil sayings)”, he set forth a series of four forms of explicating (the substance indicated name), expecting (a clear and polished explanation by names), discriminating (the differences of the substance indicated by names), and arguing (to clarify the Dao of moving and stillness) to unite the world into one Dao . He said: “If the reality could not be explicated, then comes the order; if the order could not be explicated, then comes the expectation; if the expectation could not do, then comes the persuasion; if the persuasion cannot do, then comes the argument. Therefore, expectation, order, argument, and persuasion are great measures for application, and the origin and basis for the governance of the sage king.” (Ibid) He even called those, who “made names without any authorization, and thus confused people and caused more litigation”, “big evildoers”, and “their crime deserves penalty.” (Ibid) (If they were punished,) people would “not dare to make absurd words to confuse orthodoxy names”, but “follow the only one Dao and conform to the orders”. Therefore, though Xun zi's linguistic philosophy conceived the pursuit of the grand unity, the rudiment of autocracy was also implicated.

It should be pointed that Xun zi's linguistic philosophy has a slight of narrow political utilitarianism. He holds: “The superior man's language is clear and polished, concise and classified. He rectifies the name and makes the name match the reality to explicate his will and the real meanings. Thus the names he used become the messenger of his will and righteousness. If the names could undertake this task, that is enough. Except of these are called abused names which are abandoned by the superior man, but are picked up by the idiots as a treasure.” (Ibid) When the task of language as a “messenger of will and righteousness” had been fulfilled, the speeches should not be further demanded to have other tasks.

In the tradition of Confucianism, Xun zi's thought embraces certain sprouts of science. This thought in his linguistic philosophy was manifested as a classical scientific positivism. He opposes the speeches without verification, holding: “Those names good at expounding the ancient ought to be verified by present cases; those concerning the heaven must be verified in human affairs. For all arguments, they are valuable if they accord to the reality and could be verified.” ( On the Inherent Evilness of Human Nature ) Moreover, departing from positivism, he criticized what Mencius had uttered about “(inherent) goodness of human nature” belonged to the language without verification, and thus they were not reliable.

For the issue of the relationship between language and knowledge, Xun zi holds that only the sages could master the truth from the variety of things: “(The sages') language are polished and classified. They always contemplate on the hows and whys of them. Though their language is changeable in various forms, the classification is united into one. This is called the sages' acknowledgement.” (Ibid)

In short, Xun zi greatly enriched the linguistic philosophy of Confucianism, especially, he from the angle of logic distinguished the names into different levels, making the ancient philosophy and ancient formal logic merged, and causing Confucian thought to have a stride to the direction of systemization.

 

IV. Views on language in the philosophy of Daoism

 

The fundamental spirit of the philosophy of Daoism aims at revealing the limitation of human civilization, thus the evident characteristic of its linguistic philosophy is manifested by its explication of the limitation of language's function in expressing the idea. For the issue of the relationship between language and idea, language and conducts, it generally holds a negative attitude to the value of language. For instance, it says in Lao zi of current version: “If the Dao can be expressed (by language), it is not an eternal Dao; if the name could be named, it is not an eternal name”, (Chapter 1) and “one who knows (the idea) does not speak; one who speaks does not know (the idea). (Chapter 56) Generally speaking, Zhuang zi and his disciples of later generations succeeded Lao zi's thought, as Zhuang zi said: “What that could be expressed by language are the coarseness of the things; what that could be attained to in mind are the essentials of the things; what that could be neither expressed by language nor attained to in mind are out of the definition of coarseness and essentials.” (Autumn Water in Zhang zi). His followers of later generation also said: “The Dao could not be expressed by language, otherwise, it is not the Dao”. ( Zhi bei you in Zhuang zi ) Because language could neither completely express the essence and noumenon, nor deeply reveal the idea, the sect of Zhuang zi belittle the function of language and regard it as a tool: “The net is used for fishing, once the fishes had been obtained, the net should be forgotten; the trap is used to capture hares, once the hares had been captured, the trap should be forgotten; the language is used to express the idea, once the idea had been attained to, the language ought to be forgotten.” (The Exterior Things) Though this attitude to language to regard language as a tool superficially differs from the narrow political utilitarianism of Confucianism to language, yet, they are fundamentally unanimous: taking a pragmatic attitude to language.

For the relationship between speeches and conducts, Lao zi ' advocate was more acute that Confucius', demanding the sages to “deal with things with non-action, edifying people with no words” and setting forth: “teaching with no words and the benefit of non-action were seldom attained to in the world under heaven.” (Chapter 43) Zhuang zi's followers of later generations said: “The heaven and earth possesses the great beauty, but do not speak it out; the four seasons have clear norms, but do not argue; the myriad things have accomplished principles, but do not voice them out.” ( Zhi bei you )

In spite of the above-mentioned characteristics, figures of Daoism still expounded some essential characteristics of language, as Lao zi said: “speeches ought to be credible” (Chapter 8), “Speech ought to possess a theme, and things should have governor(s)” (Chapter 70), and “the real meaning of langue ought to be understood from its opposite”. These are to say, the essential character of everyday language is manifested as sincerity, language ought to conceive substance, and language should match deeds; in concrete speaking, the speech ought to have an aim, but not be discursive; sometimes we should comprehend the connotations of language from its opposite meanings. These asserts were partly expanded by Zhuang zi and his followers of later generations, and some were reversed. Because Zhuang zi and his followers of later generations lived in the mid and late period of the Warring States Times, when the society was more chaotic than the time when Lao zi was living, the chapter of Under the Heaven in Zhuang zi said in explicating the characteristics of book: “It takes far-reaching and broad accounts and unlimited speeches, and was unrestrained and untrammeled now and then, it does not adhere stubborn opinions. It considers the world under heaven was turbid, so we ought not to speak seriously. It extends unintentional words, takes wise and sagacious men's words to make people understand the truth and broadly takes in fables to expand the norms.” Because the society and people's heart had abnormally changed, in speaking he could only took an unconventional form to express his thought in mind, the way of which adequately expanded Lao zi's thought of that “the real meaning of langue ought to be understood from its opposite”. The chapters of Yu yan , Fables, and Tian xia , The World under the Heaven repeatedly expounded the characteristics of language of Zhuang zi , as it says in the former chapter: “(In the book), fables occupy ninety percent, among which wise and sagacious men's words occupy seventy percent, and unintentional words come out endlessly, complying to the nature”, and it further explained: “The fables were to express the ides by others' words”. In the Chapter of Tian Xia , it says: “It takes the wise and sagacious men's words as the truth”. Therefore, Zhuang zi's linguistics conceives abundant content of social psychology, and he was fairly conscious of people's mind and language styles. This is also the insight of Daoism reflected in people's emotions.

Zhuang zi and his followers of later generations seemed to have reversed Lao zi's thought of that “Speech ought to possess a theme, and things should have governor(s)”, for they held that the purport of any language is merely relative, whereas only the Dao is absolutely all-inclusive, as it says in the chapter of Qi wu lun, On the Uniform of the Things: “”. Any language depends upon a specific condition, and thus it is not a complete expression of the Dao, whereas only the unspeakable Dao is absolute, so all the meanings conveyed by language are relative. The followers of Zhuang zi of later generations (the original book of Zhuang zi ascribed these views to Ji zhen and Jie zi) held that, in the presence of the ultimate reality, i.e. the Dao , neither speeches nor non-speeches, i.e. silence could carry the Dao . The fundament of language is but a Dao of “being created by something or emerging naturally”. If “the speech is universal, then, what one says all the day reveals the Dao; if the speech is not all-embracing, then what one says all the day only express the concrete things.” ( Ze yang ) According to Guo Xiang's (a famous philosopher of the Jin Dynasty) annotations, that “if speech is universal” implies that “it would be enough if we can seek the Dao from the speech” and “it would not be all-embracing if we cannot forget language but reserve mind”. That is to say, to speak in forms of fables, unintentional words, and wise and sagacious men's words used by Zhuang zi himself could completely reveal the Dao, otherwise, we could only stay at the superficial level of things. In this way, the followers of Zhuang zi of later generations resolved the strained relationship between language and the Dao in Lao zi's philosophy, and could avoid others' criticism on the school's denial of the value of language.

Zhuang zi skeptically said: “No speaking just like having spoken; and having said just like speaking nothing”, and “now I have said something, but I don't know whether what I had said is a speaking or not” ( Qi Wu Lun ) People are basically skeptic of the significance of what they said. So, the Zhang zi' followers of later generations said: “if one cannot voice out his subjective idea, even if he had been speaking for all his life, he actually had spoken of nothing. (If one had recognized the truth of things,) Even if he speaks nothing for all his life, the result of speaking has been attained to.” ( Yu yan )

The author of Ze yang in Zhuang zi said: “What the language would complete and what the wisdom would attain to is but the attainment of the ultimate truth of things.” To the world of noumenon, “more speeches (often) alienate from the truth.” And sometimes people are under a very strange circumstance, as a hermit, described in Ze yang , “mixes himself among the people, hides himself in the field, without voicing out, but his will is beyond reaching. Though he speaks with his mouth, his heart may not speak, because his mind goes against the world, so he distains to get along with the world.” Therefore, it says in Da zong shi (the Great Master): “The true man of antiquity, …… kept silent as if he had closed his consciousness, and was unintentional as if he had forgotten what he would say.” No matter forgetting to speak or no speaking, they are in fact correlated to the thought upholding simplicity in Daoism. Lao zi upholds simplicity and being unadorned. Though he had said “beautiful language may be valuable and respectable deeds make one lofty.” (Chapter 62 in Lao zi ), he basically opposes beautiful language, so he said: “trustworthy speeches are not beautiful, and beautiful speeches are not trustworthy.” (Chapter 81) The theoretical foundation of “upholding simplicity” relies on “venerating the Dao ”. “When the Dao is spoken out, it is insipid. It is neither visible, nor audible, nor usable.” (Chapter 35) In addition, Lao zi holds that “rare speaking is close to nature.” (Chapter 23) Therefore, in the premise of venerating the Dao, language has not any independent positions. This distinctly differs from the view of “polishing language to establish sincerity” emphasized by the author(s) of Yi Zhuan .

 

Conclusion

 

In summary, I hold that, the linguistic philosophy of the Yi Zhuan 's authors rather embodies the enthusiastic living spirit of Confucianism. They were conscious of the limitation of the function of language, but they did not on this account deny its values. Especially, Wen Yan 's explication for the value of language in constructing virtues transcended over the arguments on the relationship between speech and conduct, between speech and virtue by Confucianism and Daoism, embodying the independent character of the linguistic philosophy in Wen Yan . Scholars of the later period Daoism seemed to have some change in viewing the relationship between language and the Dao . This seems to indicate that after the cleansing of the trends of thought of the School of Logicians prevalent in the mid of the Warring States Period, linguistic philosophy of the pre-Qin period formed a comparatively unanimous acknowledgement for the relationship between language and idea: language could (completely) reveal the idea. But the controversy of what kind of language could (completely) reveal the idea arose. Xun zi insists through the theoretical mode of metaphors, expectation, persuasion, and argument and the political power for “the king to make names” to integrate language, idea, and people's acknowledgement. Zhuang zi and his followers adhere to reveal the idea in an artistic way. These thought seemed to be regarded as a response to linguistic philosophy of Yi Zhuan . But, it is difficult to confirm the completed time of each chapter of Yi Zhuan , accordingly it is difficult to clarify the line of development of linguistic philosophy of the pre-Qin period. But, whether could we examine the completed time of some chapters through the logic of the ideological development? I think at least it is a possible approach.

 

① Engels: Preface in the Natural Dialectics, pp. 7-8. “Not only had Luid cleared the Augean stables of the church, but also cleared that of language, having created modern Germen essays, …… ”. Renmin Publishing House, 1971.

② Here there is no enough time to discuss the linguistic philosophical views of the scholars of the School of Logicians in the pre-Qin period. They would consider linguistic issues from the angle of formal logic, which is worthy of being seriously explored.

 

(Originally published in Chinese in the STUDIES OF ZHOUYI/No. 6, 2003)