JIN Chun-feng

(Institute for Oriental Humanities, Huafan University , Taibei , Taiwan , China )

Translated by ZHANG Wen-zhi

(Center for Zhouyi & Ancient Chinese Philosophy, Shandong University , Jinan 250100, China )

 

Abstract: The paper points out that Da xiang ( the Great Image , a chapter of the Commentaries in the Book of Changes) emphasizes fearfulness, apprehensiveness and self-cultivation by observing the images of the hexagrams to grasp their implied meanings. This just can prove that Da xiang was compiled in the time when Zuo zhuan ( Zuo's Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals ) and Guo yu ( Remarks of Monarchs , history of late Western Zhou and major states in the Spring and Autumn Period) were compiled or in the late Spring and Autumn Period when Confucius was living, earlier than the compilation of Tuan zhuan (the Judgment, a chapter of the Commentaries in the Book of Changes). “Cultivating oneself by observing the images” refers to governors introspect their mal-governance by observing the images of warning from the Heaven. Different from the inner-mind introspection stressed by ZENG Zi and Mencius, thinking mode of “expanding virtue by observing images” regards Yi 's images as the implication of learning or edification text, the quality of which is to directly observe the image's implied meaning to expand virtues and cultivate oneself.

Key words: the Great Image ; self-cultivation by observing the images; expanding virtue by observing images

 

Zhouyi ( the Book of Changes ) was originally an oracular book. In the course of development, it began to possess double functions: one is divination; the other is an accumulation and inspiration of wisdom, turning out to be a philosophical textbook of life wisdom. It says in the section two of Xi Ci ( the Great Treatise , a general commentary on Zhouyi and one of the chapters of the Commentaries, Yi zhuan ): “The Yi exhibits the past, and (teaches us to) discriminate (the issues of) the future; it makes manifest what is minute, and brings to light what is obscure. (Then the creator of Yi ) opened (its symbols), and distinguished things in accordance with its names, so that all his words were correct and his explanations decisive: (the book) was now complete.” The former sentence refers to its oracular function, while the latter refers to its function as a philosophical summary of life experience. It also says in Xi Ci : “Therefore what the superior man rests in, in whatever position he is placed, is the order shown in the Yi ; and the study which gives him the greatest pleasure is that of the explanations of the several lines. Therefore the superior man, when living quietly, contemplates the emblems and studies the explanations of them; when initiating any movement, he contemplates the changes (that are made in divining), and studies

 

the prognostications from them. Thus ‘is help extended to him from Heaven; there will be good fortune, and advantage in every movement.” Here resting or living specially refers to resting or living quietly at home. Then, the superior man “contemplates the emblems and studies the explanations”, i.e. regards Yi as a textbook to contemplate its implied connotations. “When initiating any movement, he contemplates the changes and studies the prognostications” refers to Yi 's divinatory function before initiating a movement.

The former great function of Yi was at first collectively and consciously manifested in Xiang Ci ( Image , including the Great Image and Small Image ), especially in Da xiang ( the Great Image ). To the Great Image , this paper emphatically examines its compilation time, quality of “self-cultivation by observing images” and characteristics of “expanding virtue by observing images”.

 

I

 

The Image ) comprises of the Great Image and the Small Image . The former is interpretations of the image of a hexagram, while the latter is interpretations of each line of a hexagram. But they were not completed at the same time. Personally, I insist that the Small Image should be called Xiao tuan (literally, the Small Judgment), for the Small Image was not correlated with the Great Image , but belongs to the same system of the Judgment in whatever the concepts, thinking mode and interpreting layouts it used.

For the time when the Great Image came into being, the academic circle generally maintains that it emerged in the Warring States Period and later than the compilation time of the Judgment and was a work compiled by the Confucian school of Zi Si ( 子思， the grandson of Confucius) and Mencius （孟子） , and was completed approximately at the same completed time of Da Xue ( the Great Learning ) or later than that of the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean . Some scholars insist that it was completed earlier than the Judgment . LI Jing-chi holds: “ the Judgment was completed earlier than the Image , for the remarks affiliated to the hexagrams had been interpreted by the Judgment , thus it was unnecessary for the Image to interpret them again, and the Image left traces of plagiarism. For instances, the Judgment of the hexagram of Kun (Receptive) mentioned ‘Kun, in its largeness, supports and contains all things, its excellent capacity matches the unlimited power', while its Image interpreted as ‘the superior man, in accordance with the image of the capacity and sustaining power of the earth connoted by Kun , with his large virtue supports (men and) things'; the Judgment of the hexagram of Shi (Aarmy) raised ‘(the name of) Shi describes the multitude (of the host), the firmness and correctness (which the hexagram indicates) refer to (moral) correctness (of aim), when (the mover) is able to use the multitude with such correctness, he may attain to the royal sway', while its Image expressed with ‘the superior man, in accordance with the image of Shi , nourishes and educates the people, and collect (from among them) the multitude (of the hosts)'; the Judgment of the hexagram of Pi (Stagnation) indicated ‘the inner is (the symbol of)

weakness, and the outer of strength; the inner (represents) the small man, and the outer the superior man, and thus the way of the small man appears increasing, and that of the superior man decreasing', while its Image extends ‘the superior man, in accordance with the image of Pi , restrains (the manifestation of) his virtue, and avoids the calamities (that threaten him), and there is no opportunity of conferring on him the glory of emolument'; etc. Most obviously, the author of the Image completely plagiarized the remarks affiliated to the hexagram of Zhen (Thunder) when he interpreted the initial line of the hexagram. But he did not notice there was a character of Hou ( 后 , literally, then), he just copied the interpretation of the Judgment without carefully contemplating on the remarks affiliated to the initial line of the hexagram, leaving an evident trace of plagiarism.” 1 Many scholars including GAO Heng also maintain this view. But Mr. LIU Da-jun holds that the Judgment plagiarized the Image .

So far, it can be pointed out that the excavation of Zhouyi copied on silk demonstrates there was originally the character of Hou in the remarks affiliated to the initial line of the hexagram of Zhen , thus exhibiting that there not exist the fact that the Image plagiarized the Judgment . Actually, it is extremely difficult to judge who plagiarized whom. This will be discussed later in the paper.

Mr. DAI Lian-zhang holds that “fearful” and “apprehensive” in “The superior man, in accordance with the image of the hexagram of Zhen , is fearful and apprehensive, cultivate (his virtue), and examines (his faults)” “does not commonly mean being afraid of, but refers to what Mencius said: ‘Confucius became fearful and apprehensive, so he revised the Spring Annals . … I am fearful about it.'” ( Mencius · Duke of Teng Wen ). This kind of fearfulness and apprehensiveness is an anxiety after Confucius felt “virtues are no longer being cultivated, teaching (of moral principles) is no longer being engaged, righteousness is no longer being turned toward, and bad deeds are no longer corrected” and was startled by the fact that “the society is declining, heresies and atrocities are arising, and there exists regicide and father's being murdered by his son” and thus aroused Confucius' apprehensiveness and compassion. The main mode for cultivation based on this kind of anxiety and apprehensiveness is self-examination, just as the Image of the hexagram of Jian (Arresting Movement) indicates: ‘[The image of] a mountain, and above it that for water, form Jian . The superior man, in accordance with this, turns round (and examine) himself, and cultivates his virtue.'” 2 So, he holds that, as works of the school of Zi Si and Mencius, the Great Image was completed later than the Judgment . This can still serve as a new argument.

But, this paper maintains a directly opposite argument, holding that “fearfulness & apprehensiveness” and “self-cultivation” just demonstrate that the Great Image came into being as early as in the compilation time of Zuo's Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals and Remarks of Monarchs , in the late Spring Period when Confucius was living, thus earlier than the compilation time of the Judgment .

What the Great Image emphasizes is “fearfulness & apprehensiveness and self-examination” through observing the images, and what called the image here basically

refers to the image from heaven mentioned as “Heaven hangs out its images from which are seen good fortune and bad” in Xi Ci ( the Great Treatise on Zhouyi ). It says in Section One of Zhou yu , a historical book: “Heaven perpetually hangs out its images, and significant things can be immediately reflected by them.” “Fearfulness and apprehensiveness” are aroused by these heavenly images and thus people seek self-examination to avert heavenly catastrophe. So, “self-examination” mainly refers to one's retrospection to his mal-governance. This kind of retrospection through observing images was much in vogue during and before the Spring Period. Famous instances are as follows:

It says in Shang Shu · Jing Teng ( the Book of History · the Metal-bound Chest ): “Autumn came with a good harvest in sight. But there came, all of a sudden, peals of thunder accompanied with lightning and violent storms. The crops were flattened and trees uprooted. The people became terrified.” The King Cheng of Zhou knew that it was the image of the heaven's warning, so he “went out to offer sacrifices, when there came rain and wind in the opposite direction”. This is an example of self-cultivation with apprehension.

In the 15 th year (662 BC) during the reign of the King Hui of Zhou, there fell a God onto a place called Shen. On this image, Guo, the Interior Historian (a name for official in the Zhou Dynasty), said: “When a state is to flourish, its king must be wise and bright, central and righteous, fine and pure, benevolent and amiable. And his virtue must be splendid enough to spread his fragrance, his love be vast enough to unite his people, and thus the God yearns and the people follow his instruction, and so the wise God fell onto there. … Therefore, seeing a God might bring a rise, otherwise a fall to a state. In the past, when the Xia Dynasty (c. 21 st -c. 16 th century BC) was to become prosperous, Rong (also called Zhu Rong [a legendary figure for the Great Fire], a legendary god) fell onto Mount Chong ; and when it became declining, Hu Lu (a legendary evil god of Fire) stretched at Sui. When the Shang Dynasty (c. 17-11 th century BC) was to flourish, it witnessed Tao Wu (a legendary fierce God) resided on Mount Pi; when it was to fall, Yi Yang (a legendary divine animal) was at Mu. When the Zhou Dynasty began to rise, phoenixes (a kind of propitious bird in ancient China ) were found chirping on Mount Qi ; and when it began to decline, Count Du shot to King Xuan of Zhou at Hao. All these were recorded at historical documents.” ( Remarks of Monarchs , Gou Yu · Zhou Yu ) In this paragraph, phoenixes, Yi Yang, Hui Lu and Zhu Rong were all “images” hung out by the heaven. According to Guo's viewpoint, the omen foreboded by the images could be prevented only by “self-examination” and “cultivating virtues”.

In the 22 nd year (560 BC) during the reign of King Ling of Zhou, the River of Gu and that of Luo were overflowing and going to inundate the imperial palace. The king would like to dam them. Jin, the crown prince, dissuaded: “Since Hou Ji (legendary founder of the Zhou clan, which was to set up the Zhou Dynasty, also was venerated as God of Agriculture), chaos and peace interchanges. Till kings Wen, Cheng, Kang, the people were pacified. … It was with the accumulation of virtues of 15 kings, that the peaceful society was realized. By now, there had later 15 kings' evil deeds accumulated, wouldn't it be retrieved? I keep

reverent and apprehensive at day and night, thinking in mind: ‘what kind of virtue to be cultivated can brighten the imperial palace to meet the bounty and help from heaven'. Yet, now, your highness helps to lead to disasters and chaos, how can the state bear it? … Big affairs were not dealt with in accordance with the images (of the heaven) and small ones were not treated according to (instructions of) the classics of History and Poetry ; and the deeds neither comply with the law of heaven above, nor accord to the virtue of earth below, … all of them will lead to calamity and chaos.” ( Remarks of Monarchs , Gou Yu · Zhou Yu Xia ) This warning was also illustrated through images of heaven to persuade the governor to examine his own faults.

ZUO's Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals recorded, in the 20 th year (522 BC) during the reign of Duke Zhao of Lu, Duke Jing of Qi was ill. Some one imputed the blame for his illness to Zhu Shi (then a name for official in charge of rituals and offering sacrifices) and suggested to kill him to offer an apology to God. But YAN Ying (then the prime minister of the State of Qi ) pointed out: in running governance, Duke Jing of Qi “governs without regulations, levies excessively, changes his living palace every day and was indulged in obscene and decadent music. (Your) favorite concubines play the despot and do whatever they like in the marketplace. And favorite officials go beyond their bounds and act recklessly. When their selfish desire could not be realized, punishment would be added (to certain people). People suffered, both husband and wife (of a family) curse them. It is unnecessary for Your Majesty to kill officials of Zhu Shi, it is enough for you first of all to cultivate virtues”. Hearing this analysis, Duke Jing of Qi became pleased and “ordered government officials to milden governance, demolish checkpoints, decrease levies and stop demanding payment of debts.” What YAN Ying would like to expound was political errors aroused by Duke Jing's individual acts, and cultivating virtues meant correcting the mal-governance.

The Image of the hexagram of Zhen (Thunder) set forth: “[The image of] thunder, being repeated, forms Zhen . The superior man, in accordance with this, is fearful and apprehensive, cultivates (his virtue), and examines (his faults)”, which was based on the above-mentioned cultural background. The hexagrams of Zhen was made up of two trigrams of Zhen , revealing an image of that “ Yang was oppressed by Yin and could not sprout out”. This kind of “great Zhen ” (great stir) caused by disorders of Yin and Yang , which may result in earthquakes or thunders, was regarded as “images on the heaven” by our forefathers, and people ought to be fearful and apprehensive and cultivate their virtues to transform disasters into good fortune. So, on the earthquakes happened at the end of the Western Zhou, Bo Yang Fu sighed: “[Does this phenomena (images) forebode] the Western Zhou is down falling?” In august of the 23 rd year (519 BC) during the reign of Duke Zhao of Lu, there happened an earthquake. Chang Hong (an official historian) said to Duke of LIU Wen: “When (the Western) Zhou was perishing, there happened earthquakes in the three mountains. Now, earth quake happens even in the western monarchs' fiefs, (it forebodes) the heaven is abandoning the Western Zhou, and eastern monarchs will certainly conquer the west ones.”

Confucius had uttered: “sudden peal of thunder and storm bode (social) revolutions.” ( The Analects of Confucius ) The Records of Rituals indicated: “If there happens violent storms and pealing thunders, social changes must follow them”. L ǚ 's Spring and Autumn · on Mid Spring accounts: “In this month (here referring to February in lunar calendar), the day and night are almost equally divided, thunders and lightning begin to appear, and worms begin to move out. Three days before the thunders' coming, (officials) issue a proclamation by striking bell: ‘The thunder is to come, those who do not guard against bad manners and have a baby must encounter disasters.'” All these revealed people's fear and apprehension to thunders and quakes. “When (the time of) Zhen (thunder comes, (the subject of the hexagram) will be found looking out with apprehension” (the remarks affiliated to the initial line of the hexagram), “a crash of thunder terrifies all within a hundred li (one li is equal to a half kilometer) (mentioned in the Judgment )”, “ Zhen 's approach implies a position of peril” (the remark attached to the second line of the hexagram), “the subject distraught amid the starling quake going on” (to the third line), “(the subject's) supinely sinking (deeper) in the mud, amid the startling quake” (to the fourth line), “(the subject,) amidst the startling quake (of the time), in breathless dismay and looking round him with tremble apprehension”, etc. all these remarks revealed the image of fearfulness & apprehensiveness. From this, the author emphasizes the apprehension and self-cultivation. Zhouyi Zhu shi Yu Yan jiu ( Annotations, Interpretations and Studies of Zhouyi ) written by CHEN Gu-ying and ZHAO Jian-jun pointed out: “cultivation refers to examining one's fault. (Chinese) ancients regard thunder's roar as the heaven's warning and denouncement. Therefore, the superior man must be fearful & apprehensive and examine his fault when he heard thunder's rumbling to revere the heaven's prowess.” 3 This conclusion is indeed right.

 

II

 

Images described in the Great Image about the hexagram of Zhen may also be “heavenly images”. Many annotators considered the Great Image was completed later than the Judgment and was works of later generations of the school of Zi Si and Mencius. They tend to present their argument from the perspective of moral cultivation, and thus resulting in improper conclusion. Actually, all these images ought to be comprehended as images of warning from the heaven. Such as:

The hexagram of Shi He (Biting Through) is formed by the trigram of Zhen (Thunder) in the lower and the trigram of Li (Fire, lightning) in the upper position. It says in its Great Image : “[The image of] thunder and lighting form Shi He . The ancient kings, in accordance with this, framed their penalties with intelligence, and promulgated laws.” Shi was annotated by WANG Bi as “teeth”, and Shuo Wen Jie Zi ( 《说文解字》， Origin of Chinese Characters , the earliest Chinese dictionary by XU Shen [ 许慎 , 58 A .D -147 A .D] of the Eastern Han Dynasty) interprets: “ Shi means Dan ( 啖 , devouring)”. Xu Gua zhuan (the Orderly Sequence of the Hexagrams, one of the Chapters of the Commentaries) indicates: “ He means closing.”

Here, closing especially refers to closing mouth. The author of the Image associated the image of lighting accompanied with claps of thunder, with the name of the hexagram of Shi He and considered it the anger from the heaven to punish criminals. Therefore, in accordance with this image, the ancient kings framed their penalties with intelligence and promulgated their laws.

The hexagram of Feng (Abundance) is formed by the trigrams of Li (Fire, Lightning) positioned in the lower and Zhen (Thunder) in the upper. It says in the Great Image : “Thunder and lightning combine.” So, it likes the great image of Shi He , exhibiting the symbol of the heaven's fury (Legend has it that the Thunder God strikes evildoers). Examining this image and inspired by it, the superior man decides cases of litigation, and apportions punishments with exactness.

The hexagram of Fu (Returning) is formed by the trigrams of Zhen (Thunder) positioned in the lower and Kun (Earth) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “The thunder is in the midst of the earth”, exhibiting an image of hiding deeply in the earth. Thunder is originally in the sky, but now, it dives into the earth, resting in peace in the midst of the earth. Therefore, Fu manifests an image of returning to the origin and resting in peace, corresponding to Winter Solstice. Examining this image and inspired by it, the ancient kings, “on the day of the (winter) solstice, shut the gates of the passes (from one state to another) so that the traveling merchants could not (then) pursue their journey, nor the princes go on with the inspection of their states.” It also manifests the thought of modifying the governance by the inspiration of the Image .

The hexagram of Da Zhuang (The Power of the Great) is formed by the trigrams of Qian (Heaven) positioned in the lower and Zhen (Thunder, Quake) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “Thunder is above the heaven”, manifesting the image of fierce of the claps of thunder in the sky. Examining this image and inspired by it, the superior man initiates his activities in conformity with rites and rituals. According to ZUO's Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals , in the 32 nd year during of reign of Duke Zhuang, Shi Mo uttered: “Since antiquity, a state may not perpetually exists, and positions of the king and officials are not perpetually unchangeable. Therefore, it says in the Book of Poetry : ‘Hills change into valleys, and deep valleys change into hills'. Off-springs of the three sage ‘kings' (Fuxi 伏羲 , Suiren 燧人 , and Shennong 神农 ) now had become commoners. In the hexagrams, that thunder rides above Qian (heaven) forms the hexagram of Da Zhuang . This is the Way of Heaven.” Shi Mo held that thunder rides above Qian (heaven) presents an image of reversion of lower and upper and an image of warning from the heaven to wish governors to be diligent in state affairs, love people, and conform to the ritual system.

The hexagram of Wu Wang (Correctness, Innocence) is composed of the trigrams of Zhen positioned in the lower and Qian (Heaven) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “The thunder rolls all under the sky, and to (every) thing there is given (its nature), free from all insincerity. The ancient kings, in accordance with this, (made their regulations) in complete accordance with the seasons, to nourish all things.” The phenomena of that

“Thunder rolls and things are given its nature” corresponds to the seasonal point of Vernal Equinox, when thunders waken worms and all life revives. Inspired by this, the ancient kings enact rules in conformity with the seasons.

The hexagram of Yi (Nourishment) is formed by the trigrams of Zhen (Thunder) positioned in the lower and Gen (Mountain) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “[The image of] a mountain and under it that for thunder form Yi . The superior man, in accordance with this, enjoins watchfulness over his words, and the temperate regulation of his eating and drinking”. Thunder also manifests an image of warning. And the hexagram of Yi exhibits an image of eating and drinking. Inspired by this, the superior man is watchful over his words and regulates his eating and drinking.

The hexagram of Yu (Harmony, Joy) is formed by the trigrams of Kun (Earth) positioned in the lower and Zhen (Thunder) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “[The image of] the earth and thunder issuing from it with its crashing noise form Yu. The ancient kings, in accordance with this, composed their music and did honor to virtue, presenting it especially and most grandly to God (Heaven), when they associated with Him (at the service) and their highest ancestor and father.” It was said that, after his victory, King Wu had composed “Martial Music” to present it to God and his ancestor and father. The remarks affiliated to the hexagram indicates: “Feudal princes may be set up, and the hosts put in motion, with advantage.” Therefore, this hexagram may reflect the historical event of awarding hereditary titles and investing the nobles with fiefs after King Wu gained victory at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty.

The hexagram of Jie (Removing Obstacles) is formed by the trigrams of Kan (Water) positioned in the lower and Zhen (Thunder) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “[The image of] thunder and that for rain, with these phenomena in a state of manifestation, form Jie . The superior man, in accordance with this, forgives errors, and deals gently with crimes.” In North China Plain, thunder and rain may remove drought, and thus (in spring,) the buds of the plants and trees that produce the various fruits begin to burst, revealing an image of propitious winds and rains. Inspired by this, the superior man “forgives errors and deals gently with crimes”.

The hexagram of Ge (Revolution) is formed by the trigrams of Li (Fire) positioned in the lower and Dui (Marsh) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “[The image of] the waters of a marsh and that for fire in the midst of them form Ge . The superior man, in accordance with this, regulates his (astronomical) calculations, and makes clear the seasons and times.” Here the “fire” refers to the central star of Scorpio. There is fire in the midst of the marsh refers to the star above the horizon (is reflected in the marsh). Zuo's Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals described there appeared a phenomenon of that “the star of fire likes a stream flowing westward” in the 11 th year during the reign of

Duke Ai of Lu. On this heavenly image, Confucius commented: “It reflects mistakes of the official enacting the calendar.” This image is similar to that there appears fire in the marsh. Hence the superior man corrects and refines the calendar after they saw this heavenly image.

The hexagram of Da You (Great Possession, Abundance) is formed by the trigrams of Qian (Heaven) positioned in the lower and Li (Fire) in the upper. It says in its Great Image : “[The image of] heaven and (that of) fire above it form Da You . The superior man, in accordance with this, represses what is evil and gives distinction to what is good, in sympathy with the excellent Heaven-conferred (nature).” Here the “fire” also refers to the central star of Scorpio. In Guo Yu , Duke of Shan Xiang said: “When the star of Si appears, frost will descend; When the star of fire appears, cold wind will follow and the cold should be kept out” and “When the cold wind comes, city walls and palaces should be renovated”. On the presence of this heavenly image, all affairs of the State of Chen were left uncultivated, and the monarch and his ministers were sexually promiscuous. So, the Duke of Shan Xiang pointed out: “The heaven rewards the good and punish the sexually promiscuous, … (You) ought to observe your institutions, to be in sympathy with the excellent Heaven-conferred (nature).” (Ibid)

By the above-mentioned illustrations, it can be seen that the Great Image had not broken away from the shadow of theocracy.

 

III

 

The subject who cultivate themselves by examining images in the Great Image are governors, including ancient kings, present kings and superior man. The superior man also refers to nobilities who hold certain power and positions, different from those made up of intellectuals and commoners mentioned by Confucius and Mencius.

Before the Spring Period, all superior men mentioned in the Book of Poetry refer to nobilities owning a state. It says in Guo Yu and Zuo's Commentaries on the Spring and Auntumn Annals : “superior men work with their brains, while mean persons work with their brawn.” Here the superior men refer to noble governors holding power and positions. So it is with the superior man in the Great Image . Thus, all the superior men mentioned in the Great Image of the following 27 hexagrams refer to governors holding power and positions: “The superior man nourishes and educates the people , and collects (from among them) the multitudes (of the hosts)” of Shi (Army); “The superior man discriminates between high and low, and gives settlement to the aims of the people” of L ü (Treading Carefully); “The superior man restrains (the manifestation of) his virtue, and avoids the calamities. (Under this circumstance,) it is not advisable for him to pursue honor and fortune” of Pi (Stagnation) ; “The superior man distinguishes things according to their kinds and classes” of Tong Ren (Union of Men); “The superior man represses what is evil and gives distinction to what is good, in sympathy with the excellent Heaven-conferred (nature)” of Da You (Great Possession); “The superior man diminishes what is excessive (in himself), and

increase where there is any defect, bringing about an equality, according to the nature of the case, in his treatment (of himself and others)” of Qian (Modesty); “The superior man (addresses himself to) help the people and nourish his own virtue” of Gu (Arresting Decay); “The superior man has his purposes of instruction that are inexhaustible, and nourishes and supports the people without limit” of Lin (Approach); “The superior man adorns the outward manifestation of his virtue” of Xiao Xu (Small Restraint); “The superior man stands up alone and has no fear, and keeps retired from the world without regret” of Da Guo (Excess); “The superior man throws a brilliancy around his various processes of government” of Bi (Adornment); “The superior man maintains constantly the virtue (of his heart) and (the integrity of) his conduct, and practices the business of instruction” of Kan (The Perilous Pit); “The superior man conducts his management of men; he shows his intelligence by keeping it obscured” of Ming Yi (Darkening of the Light); “The superior man forgives errors, and deals gently with crimes” of Jie (Removing Obstacles); “The superior man bestows emolument on those below him, and dislikes allowing his gifts to accumulate (un-dispensed)” of Guai (Removing Corruption); “The superior man has his weapons of war put in good repair, to be prepared against unforeseen contingencies” of Cui (Gathering Together); “The superior man will sacrifice his life in order to carry out his purpose” of Kun (Oppression); “The superior man comforts the people, and stimulates them to mutual helpfulness” of Jing (A Well); “The superior man regulates his (astronomical) calculations, and makes clear the seasons and times” of Ge (Revolution); “The superior man does not go in his thoughts beyond the (duties of the) position in which he is” of Gen (Arresting Movement); “The superior man attains to and maintains his extraordinary virtue, and makes the manners of the people good” of Jian (Gradual Progress); “The superior man reiterates his orders, and secures the practice of his affairs” of Xun (Gentle Penetration); “The superior man constructs his (method of) numbering and measurement, and discusses (points of) virtue and conduct” of Jie (Regulation, Restraining); “The superior man deliberates about cases of litigation and delays (the infliction of) death” of Zhong Fu (Inmost Sincerity); “The superior man carefully discriminates among (the qualities of) things, and the (different) positions they (naturally) occupy” of Wei Ji (Before Completion); “The super man decides cases of litigation, and apportions punishments with exactness” of Feng (Abundance, Prosperity); and “The superior man exerts his wisdom and caution in the use of punishments and not allowing litigations to continue” of L ü ( Traveling Stranger). The superior man's cultivating virtues refers to their political policies adopted, such as governing by rites and rituals, regulating calendar to make clear the seasons and times, being lenient to obtain people's support, or how to treat high officials and rule the subordinates to preserve position and consolidate power; in cultural education, cultivating virtues relates to “maintaining constantly the virtue (of his heart) and (the integrity of) his conduct, and practicing the business of instruction”, “(addressing himself to) help the people and nourish his own virtue”, and “attaining to and maintaining his extraordinary virtue, and makes the manners of the people good”; in military affairs, it relates to “nourishing and educating the people , and collecting (from among them)

the multitudes (of the hosts)”, and “having his weapons of war put in good repair, to be prepared against unforeseen contingencies”; of economic affairs, it relates to “diminishing what is excessive, and increasing where there is any defect, to bring about an equality”, and “comforting the people, and stimulating them to mutual helpfulness”; of litigant affairs, it has “deliberating about cases of litigation and delaying (the infliction of) death”, and “forgiving errors, and dealing gently with crimes”; in reinforcing hierarchy, it has “constructing (method of) numbering and measurement, and discussing (points of) virtue and conduct”, “carefully discriminating among (the qualities of) things, and the (different) positions they (naturally) occupy”, “distinguishing things according to their kinds and classes” and “distinguishing (the positions) of higher and lower officials to frame people's will”; of individual conduct in society, it has “reiterating orders, and securing the practice of his affairs”, “keeping his every position correct, and maintaining secure the appointment”, “sacrificing one's life in order to carry out his purpose”, “repressing what is evil and gives distinction to what is good, in sympathy with the excellent Heaven-conferred (nature)”, and “restraining (the manifestation of) one's virtue, and avoiding the calamities”; in response strategies, it has “showing one's intelligence by keeping it obscured”, “bestowing emolument on those below him, and disliking allowing his gifts to accumulate (un-dispensed)”, “not going in his thoughts beyond the (duties of the) position in which he is”, and “standing up alone with no fear, and keeping retired from the world without regret”. All the superior men mentioned above refer to governors and aristocrats. Here position refers to official and noble position.

Besides of the above-mentioned 27 hexagrams' images, there are 7 hexagrams' images in which the subject refers to ancient kings, and two hexagrams' images to kings, one hexagram's image to upper man and one to great man. These eleven hexagrams' images completely relate to politics. Above all, there are thirty-eight hexagrams mentioned.

There are twenty-six hexagrams' Great Images concerning virtual cultivation: “nerving oneself to ceaseless activity” of Qian (Heaven), “supporting (men and) things with one's large virtue” of Kun (Earth), “striving to be resolute in one's conduct and nourishing his virtue” of Meng (Obscurity), “storing largely in one's memory the words and deeds of former men, to accumulate his virtue” of Da Xu (The Great Accumulation), “keeping one's mind free from pre-occupation, and opening to receive (the influences of) others” of Xian (Influence), “standing firm (in virtual cultivation)” of Heng (Perseverance) , “keeping small men at a distance, not by showing that he hates them, but by his own dignified gravity” of Dun (Retreat), “not taking a step not in conformity with rituals” of Da Zhuang (The Power of the Great), “giving oneself to make more brilliant his bright virtue” of Jin (Progress), “ordering one's words according to (the truth of) things, and his conduct so that it is uniformly consistent” of Jia Ren (The Family), “restraining wrath and repressing desires” of Sun (Decrease), “moving toward what is good when one sees it; and turning from errors when he sees them” of Yi (Increase), “paying careful attention to virtue, and accumulating the small developments of it till it is high and great” of Sheng (Ascending). The thinking

mode for these images is also cultivating oneself by observing natural and heavenly images. Different from the images making the superior man to cultivate his virtue with fear, these images are auspicious and able to inspire him to cultivate virtue positively.

This kind of culture and custom of ascending virtue by examining images can be traced back to the time when Confucius was living and the Zuo's Commentaries on the Spring Annals and Remarks of Monarchs were compiled in the Spring Period. In the Analects of Confucius , Zi Xia, one of Confucius' 70 brilliant disciples, also called Shang, asked: “What is meant by ‘the pretty smile entices, the beautiful eyes enchant' (lines from the Book of Poetry ), ‘whiting before color' (believed to be a line from the Book of Poetry )?” Confucius answered: “Color rendering comes after sketching”. Zi Xia asked: “As the rites come after … ” (Inner qualities should take precedence over the rites). Confucius answered: “Shang, I am stimulated, and can begin to discuss the Book of Poetry with you”. This is a concrete example of arousing inspiration of ascending virtue by examining images. So it is with Confucius' seeing the image of water, when he “sighed by a river: ‘What has passed has passed, like this … day and night, not pausing'”. Mencius recorded: “It says in the Book of Poetry : ‘When there's no cloud and no rain; With bark of the mulberry tree; I mend the window and door; There now, you people below; Who dares to bully me?' Confucius said: ‘the author of this poem probably knew the principle of government. If a ruler can run a state well, who will dare to bully him?'” ( GONG-SUN Chou (Part B)) It is also recorded in Mencius : “XU Zi said: ‘More than once Confucius praised water by saying, ‘Oh water, water!' What did he value in water?' ‘Water from an abundant source,' said Mencius, ‘rolls on day and night without pause, surging forward only after filling up all the holes in its way, and then going on to the sea. Such is the case with anything that has an abundant source, and this is what Confucius valued in water.'” (Li Lou (Part B)) Here, water is also taken as an image to expand virtues. It says in the chapter of Water & Earth in Guan Zi ( 《管子》 , a book recording deeds and stories about Guan Zhong and Duke Huan of Qi): “(Although) water is soft and clear, yet, it could wash out people's dirt, exhibiting water's benevolence. It looks like black, yet, it is actually white, manifesting its quintessence. When being measured, it doesn't overfill the container, manifesting its appropriateness. It fills up all the holes in its way till being level, manifesting its righteousness. All other things would like mount toward higher positions, yet, only water tends to flow toward lower positions, manifesting its humbleness. Humbleness is the domicile for Dao and weapons for rulers, and water treat humble (position) as its capital.” What the Image of the hexagram of Meng (Obscurity) indicates: “[The image of] a mountain, and beneath it that for a spring issuing forth form Meng . The superior man, in accordance with this, strives to be resolute in his conduct and nourishes his virtue” is identical to the above-mentioned ascending virtue by observing images. This kind of thinking mode of ascending virtue by observing images is totally different from that emphasized by Zeng Zi ( 曾子 ) and Mencius ( 孟子 ) of self-retrospection and self-seeking (of virtue). This kind of ascending virtue by observing images, like invent implements by inspirations of images, takes advantage of Yi 's images as teaching or learning

text. What the Great Image set forth: “Heaven, in its motion, (gives the idea of) strength. The superior man, in accordance with this, nerves himself to ceaseless activity”, “The (capacity and sustaining) power of the earth is what is denoted by Kun , the superior man, in accordance with this, with his large virtue supports (men and) things” and “The superior man (in accordance with the image of Mountain positioned in the upper and Heaven in the lower,) stores largely in his memory the words and deeds of former men, to accumulate his virtue” belongs to this kind of ascending virtue by the inspiration of images. The quality of them is ascending virtues by directly examining the images, without any anxiety, fear or self-questioning.

It says in the chapter of Adornment with Jade ( 《玉藻》 ) in the Records of Rituals ( 《礼记》 ): “Ancient superior men must adorn themselves with jade of different pentatonic scale: with Zheng ( 徵 , one of the ancient pentatonic scale, corresponding to Fire, one of the Five Elements) and Jiao ( 角 , corresponding to Wood) on the right, and Gong ( 宫 , corresponding to Earth) and Yu ( 羽 , corresponding to Water) on the left. They keep pace to the tempo of Cai Ji ( 《采齐》 , a poem in the Book of Poetry , composed with music) when hastening forward, and to the tempo of Si Xia ( 肆夏 , a music tempo for stepping into a house) when walking. They walk around or turn back with certain rules. They bow with hands clasped when advancing and raise body when retreating, then jade will spring forth rhythmic and sonorous sound. … The superior man never abandons jade adornment without reason, to compare his virtue with jade.” There are many articles describing virtues of jade in the documents of the pre-Qin times, e.g. it says in Guan Zi · Earth and Water : “What the jade is precious is that it contains 9 virtues. Jade's gentleness and luster shows (the disposition of) benevolence; its adjoining veins manifest wisdom; its firmness without shrink extends righteousness. … Thus the monarch thinks it is precious and restores it as a treasure, and cuts it into talisman, its nine virtues being exhibited.” Similar expression can be found in Confucius' Family Instruction : “In former times, the superior man compares their virtues to jade. And it says in the Book of Poetry : “Thinking of her husband, (the women thinks) his virtue is as gentle as jade.” This custom of comparing jade adorned to one's virtue is time-honored and can be traced back as early as to times of jade culture. Adornment with jade is one kind of ascending virtue by observing image. But this image is a concrete thing.

There are numerous poems and exhortations describing various virtues of things to comparing them to the superior man's virtues. This is also a kind of ascending virtues by observing images. This thought elaborated in the Great Image embodies the connotations of this kind of culture.

 

IV

 

Brilliant virtue ( 明德 ), gentle & cultivated virtue ( 文德 ) and excellent virtue ( 懿德 ) mentioned in the Great Image were also words prevalent in the Spring and Autumn Period or the earlier Warring States Period.

As for “brilliant virtue” was concerned, it was mainly used before the Spring and Autumn Period. It connotes: (1) virtuous governance in politics; (2) individual virtuous conducts for kings, princes and aristocrats. Instances are as follows:

The Book of History , Zuo's Commentaries on Spring and Autumn Annals referred to “bright virtue” many times. Without exception, all “brilliant virtues” were mentioned with a view to governors. So it is with “brilliant virtues” mentioned in the Great Image . Reflecting events and utterances from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, the Analects of Confucius did not own the word of “brilliant virtue”, neither did Mencius ( 《孟子》 , Xun Zi ( 《荀子》 ), Guan Zi ( 《管子》 ), and Zhou Guan ( 《周官》 ) own it.

Later, the Great Learning set forth: “The Way of great learning locates in brightening the brilliant virtue, renewing the people (with virtues), and attaining to the supreme good”, and said: “Those ancient (kings or monarchs) who desire to brighten the brilliant virtue to under the heaven … ”, and quoted from Kang Gao ( 《康诰》， Advice to the King Kang of Zhou , one chapter of the Book of History ): “Being able to brightening the brilliant virtue” and from Di Dian ( 《帝典》 , also called Yao Dia 《尧典》 , The Canon of Emperor Yao , one chapter of the Book of History , 《尚书》 ) . This actually preserved historical shadows of the above-mentioned period. Particularly, the word “ancient” also reflected the prevalent time for “brilliant virtue”. As a matter of fact, the “three principles” in the Great Learning are principles in honor of governors, for only governors were able and qualified for “renewing the people (with virtues)”. What “the superior man” it called also refers to governors holding positions and powers, succeeding the tradition of the Spring and Autumn Period. In ancient times, children of aristocrats went to primary school at the age of seven or eight, and to the school of great learning at the age of fifteen. The Way of great learning initiated by the Great Learning was put forward in light of their being educated.

Gentle and cultivated virtue ( 文德 ) was also a saying in the Spring and Autumn Period. The Remarks of Monarchs · Remarks of Zhou recorded that Zhou, Hui Bo Tai's son of the state of Jin, went to the State of Zhou and served Duke of Shan-xiang. “Once Duke Shan-xiang was ill, he called Duke of Qing and said: ‘You must treat Zhou who came from Jin nicely, for he will obtain the State of Jin , and because his conducts are gentle and cultivated. When one's conducts are gentle and cultivated, he will obtain the heaven and earth. … Gentle and cultivated virtue connotes respectfulness, loyalty, credibility, benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, bravery, edification, filiality, and benefit'”. It says in the Analects of Confucius : “If those who are far away are not sincerely allegiant, you should cultivate gentle virtues to make them come.” This still preserved this saying of gentle and cultivated virtue. But it never appeared after Mencius . Though it had been used by DONG Zhong-shu, it connoted different meaning. Huai Nan Zi ( 《淮南子》 ) succeeded the saying in the Analects of Confucius of gentle and cultivated virtue.

The Great Image of Xiao Xu (Small Restraint) indicates: “The superior man adorns the outward manifestation of his gentle and cultivated virtue”; that of Gu (Arresting Decay) indicates: “the superior man (addresses himself to) help the people and nourish his own

virtue”; and that of Guan (Contemplation) indicates: “The ancient kings examined the (different) regions (of the kingdom), to see the (ways of the) people, and set forth their instructions.” This remind us of what Confucius said: “The virtue of the superior man likes wind and that of the small man likes the grass. The grass must lodge when meeting wind”. Different from what Zeng Zi advocated “I retrospect myself three times a day”, it denotes the superior man's spreading edification to the small men.

 

V

 

The Great Image possesses its own system. Implicated meanings and thinking mode of each hexagram comes from the image of two trigrams from the upper to the lower, to interpret the name of a hexagram and inspire the superior man to ascend his virtue by observing the image or retrospect to know what he ought to do in governance. Different from the Judgment , the Great Image accounts a hexagram always from the upper trigram to the lower one. Only having noticed this, can we pertinently interpret contents of the Great Image .

A main purpose and style of writing run through the Great Image , e.g.:

Xiao Xu (Small Restraint): Wind moves above the sky. In ancient times, poetry was called wind and collecting poems called collecting wind. The meaning of wind here can be extended as blowing, edification with wind (i.e. the superior man's virtue or order like wind and spread to the common people). Using metaphor, this image indicates the wind-like edification prevails and thus deducing “adorning the outward manifestation of one's gentle and cultivated virtue”.

Gu (Arresting Decay): Under the mountain is wind. “(Addressing oneself to) help the people and nourish his own virtue” was deduced from the wind-like edification.

Guan (Contemplation): Wind blows on the earth. From this image, “the ancient kings examine the (different) regions (of the kingdom), to see the (ways of the) people, and set forth their instructions” was deduced.

Song (Conflict): The heaven and water move away from each other. By this image, “the superior man in the transaction of affairs takes good counsel about his first steps” to “avoid conflict” was deduced.

Shi (The Army): In the midst of the earth is water. By this image, “nourishing and educating the people, and collecting (from among them) the multitudes (of the hosts)” was deduced.

Lin (Approach): On the marsh is earth and the earth symbolizes multitude and the people. By this image, “nourishing and supporting the people without limit” was deduced.

Bo (Falling Apart): A mountain adheres to the earth. By this image, “seeking to strengthen those below, to secure the peace and stability of one's own position” was deduced.

Bi ( Union ): Over the earth is the water, a token of affection and union. By this image,

“establishing the various states and maintaining an affectionate relation to their princes” was deduced.

Tong Ren (Union of Men): (The image of) heaven and fire form Tong Ren . And heaven and fire belong the images of the same trigram, i.e. they belong to the same gender. As the Book of Poetry indicated: “(Being) not of the same nationality with us, his mind must be different (from us)”. Therefore, by the image of Tong Ren , “distinguishing things according to their kinds and classes” was deduced.

Pi (Stagnation) is an opposite of Tai (Peace). Pi connotes the state of stagnation between the monarch and his ministers. So, by this image, “the superior man restrains (the manifestation of) his virtue, and avoids the calamities (that threaten him)”, to extend the meaning that the superior man, under the circumstance, ought to be economical, but not run after fame and fortune.

“The heaven moves, forcefully” ( the Great Image of the hexagram of Qian ) indicates that the upper and lower, or the left and right heaven rotates ceaselessly. By observing this image, the superior man nerves himself to ceaseless activity. It is not proper to directly interpret “the heaven moves” as “the way of heaven” or “the way of heaven moves ceaselessly”.

The hexagram of Kun (Receptive) is formed by two trigrams of earth. From the upper earth to the connected lower earth forms the image of fluency of the earth, like the fluency of a river. By this image, the superior man thickens his virtue to sustain and support (men and) things. It is not appropriate to interpret “the momentum of earth is receptive” (the Great Image of Kun) as “the momentum of earth yields to the heaven”, for it neglects the special implication of the “momentum of earth” here.

Kan (The Perilous Pit): Repeated Kan , indicating water flowing on continuously. By this image, “maintaining constantly the virtue (of one's heart) and (the integrity of) one's conduct, and practicing the business of instruction” was deduced.

Li (Brightness): Repeated brightness. Here the brightness and repeated brightness refer to the sun and moon. By this image, “the great man cultivates his brilliant virtue constantly, and diffuses its brightness over the four quarters (of the land)” was deduced.

Gen (Mountain): Double mountains, from the higher to lower, one mountain is above the other. It is like that, when climbing or going down a mountain, one should fix his eyes on the toes and not leave them, otherwise, he will tumble. By this image, the superior man does not go in his thoughts beyond the (the duties of the) position in which he is.

Dui (Marsh, Joy): Double marshes, with one over (or above) the other, implying that two marshes are connected and waters of them flow into each other. By this image, the superior man encourages the conversation of friends and (the stimulus of) their (common) practice to benefit each other in knowledge.

Zhen (Thunder): Thunder, being repeated. One thunder comes after another. By observing this image, the superior man become fearful and apprehensive, cultivates (his virtue), and examines (his faults).

Xun (Wind, Gentle Penetration): Wind, following each other. By this image, “reiterating one's orders and securing the practice of his affairs” was deduced.

Therefore, (the spirit of) “nerving oneself to ceaseless activity” and “expanding one's virtue to sustain and support (men and) things” advocated in Qian and Kun were not derived from the Judgment , but from the formulation of the Great Image . So, GAO Heng and LI Jing-chi's view should be reversed.

Jin (Progress): The trigram of Kun (earth) positioned in the lower and Li (sun, brightness) in the upper. Its Great Image indicates: “[The image of] the earth and that for the bright (sun) coming forth above it form Jin . The superior man, according to this, gives himself to make more brilliant his bright virtue”. The Great Image is consistent in interpreting Li as brightness. But the Judgment interprets Jin as advancing and Li as “attached to”, yet it still indicates: “docile submission (an image of Kun , earth) attached to the great brightness (an image of Li ), and adds “the bright appearing above the earth” before it. By this, it can be seen that the Judgment 's formulations are inconsistent, and it is evident that the Judgment plagiarized the Great Images .

Following the thought of people of the Spring and Autumn Period, the Great Image of Kan (The Perilous Pit) upholds observing virtues departed from the image of water of Kan . But the Judgment interprets Kan as “one defile succeeding another”, yet it still indicates: “the water flows on, without accumulating its volume (so as to overflow); it pursues its way through a dangerous defile, without losing its true (nature)”. This should also be summarized from the Great Image .

Ming Yi (Darkening of the Light): with Li (Sun) positioned in the lower and Kun (Earth) in the upper. Its Great Image indicates: “[The image of] the earth and that for the bright (sun) entering within it form Ming Yi . The superior man, in accordance with this, conducts his management of men and shows his intelligence by keeping it obscured.” The Great Image , in constancy, interprets Li as brightness and Kun as the earth and multitude. The Judgment attributes “It will be advantageous to realize the difficulty (of the position), and maintain firm correctness” to “(the individual concerned) obscured his brightness”. It is obvious that the Judgment plagiarized the Great Image .

LIU Da-jun points out that the Great Image was completed earlier than the Judgment , for it says in the Judgment of Ding (The Caldron): “ Ding exhibits an image of the wood entering into fire, which suggests the idea of cooking”. This evidently quoted from the Great Image of “over the wood is fire” and expanded its image implication. The Judgment of Bo (Falling Apart) indicates: “being submissive and stopping all forward movement is resulted from observing the image”. This image observed is the image of mountain adhering to the earth of Bo , for the image of Kun (the lower trigram of Bo ) is submissiveness and that of Gen (the upper trigram of Bo ) stopping. And the Judgment of Xun (Wind, Gentle Penetration) of “the double Xun shows, in accordance with it, (governmental) orders are reiterated, the hard (fifth line) has penetrated into the central and correct position, and the will (of its subject) is being carried into effect” was sprout from the observation of its Great Image of

“wind following each other forms Xun , The superior man, in accordance with this, reiterates his orders and secures the practice of his affairs.” He insists all these instances can prove that the Judgment plagiarized the Great Image 4 . His conclusion is tenable.

 

VI

 

Thought of ascending and cultivating virtues reflected in the Great Image rendered the transition from beliefs, superstition to rational knowledge, vividly manifesting the developing course of the rational element's struggling its way from the binding of superstitious beliefs. On one hand, believing that “heaven hangs out its images from which are seen good fortune and bad”, the Great Image was still shrouded by the theological tradition of the Yin and Zhou dynasties, superstitiously worshiped the images of heaven, and insisted there exists superstitious correlations between human affairs and the images of heaven; On the other hand, it sprang out a new feature: besides auspicious & ominous images hanged out from the heaven, its “images” are made up of myriad images, including deduced images as well as metaphorical ones. Because it was composed for Yi and appeared only in one's mind, in the course of observing the images, the superior man urges and directs himself to ascend and cultivate virtues, which have nothing to do with divination, and thus evidently presenting Yi 's function as a text book of philosophy, ethics and moral edification. Without this, Yi would always be a tool for divination. With this achievement and along with its developing direction, the Judgment , Record of Wen Yan , and Xi Ci were composed, ultimately making Yi become a confluence of philosophy, morals, ethics, and wisdom for life, completing its transformation from divination, superstition, beliefs to humanistic ideology.

 

 

Notes and references:

 

1.LI Jing-chi. Probing into the Origin of Zhouyi [M]. Beijing : Zhonghua Publishing, 1982. p.371.

2. DAI Lian-zhang. The Formation of Yi Zhuan and Its Thought [M]. Taibei: Wenjin Publishing, p.122.

3. CHEN Gu-ying and ZHAO Jian-wei. Zhouyi Zhu shi Yu Yan jiu [M]. Taibei: the Commercial Press, 1999.

4. LIU Da-jun. A General Survey of Zhouyi [M]. Jinan : Qilu Publishing, 1986. pp. 20-21

This star is as bright as firing. In ancient China , by observing the appearance position (above the horizon or on the zenith) at dawn or dusk, people could judge different seasons, and thus to make the calendar.

 

(Originally published in Chinese in the STUDIES OF ZHOUYI/No. 6, 2003)